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Food Aid Programmes in DDR

Summary

This module on food aid programmes in disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) establishes the guiding principles and operational requirements for planning and implementing food aid programmes in support of United Nations (UN) integrated DDR programmes in peacekeeping environments. The module also introduces some information regarding food security issues in the post-conflict environment, and offers a rationale for using humanitarian food aid and food security interventions, when appropriate, to contribute to the broader coordinated efforts to support the lasting social and economic reintegration of former combatants and their dependants. Finally, the module offers some practical guidance and references to provide a general framework for the development of operational plans for food aid programmes in support of demobilization and reintegration.

1. Module scope and objectives

While the fundamental planning and operational concepts for food aid programming in DDR are introduced, this module also identifies, through references and annexes, key resources that will provide additional in-depth guidance in areas such as standard operating procedures for planning food aid programmes to support DDR, assessments, food distribution, logistics, transport and participation.

The objective of this module is to outline the guiding principles and rationale behind food aid programming in the context of integrated UN DDR programmes in peacekeeping environments. The module highlights a main planning and programming framework in order to contextualize, and provide guidance towards, the effective and most efficient provision of food assistance in future DDR programmes.

2. Terms, definitions and abbreviations

Annex A contains a list of the abbreviations used in this standard. A complete glossary of all the terms, definitions and abbreviations used in the series of integrated DDR standards (IDDRS) is given in IDDRS 1.20.

In the IDDRS series, the word ‘shall’, ‘should’ and ‘may’ are used to indicate the intended degree of compliance with the standards laid down. This use is consistent with the language used in the International Organization for Standardization standards and guidelines:

a) ‘shall’ is used to indicate requirements, methods or specifications that are to be applied in order to conform to the standard.

b) ‘should’ is used to indicate the preferred requirements, methods or specifications.

c) ‘may’ is used to indicate a possible method or course of action.”

3. Introduction

In countries and regions emerging from conflict situations, humanitarian food aid agencies are normally already engaged in large-scale life-saving and livelihood protection programmes to assist vulnerable and war-affected civilian communities and displaced populations. These same agencies may be asked to implement specifically designed food assistance programmes in support of DDR programmes during peacekeeping operations.

Experience has shown that the involvement of humanitarian food aid agencies with DDR is a complex and delicate process, requiring close coordination among all parties involved (including military, political, development-oriented and humanitarian actors) to ensure staff safety and prevent the programmes from having a destabilizing effect. Food aid programmes in support of DDR should be carried out according to the principles outlined in the IDDRS, particularly the principles of unity of effort and humanitarianism (see IDDRS 2.10 on the UN Approach to DDR).

To achieve recovery, rehabilitation and progress towards self-reliance among war-affected populations, including the most vulnerable, and to ensure the lasting reintegration of former combatants into civilian life and peacetime livelihoods, food aid is generally offered to disarmed ex-combatants, women associated with armed groups and forces in non-combat roles, their families and dependants, as well as communities of resettlement during the vital and fragile period of transition. However, in accordance with humanitarian principles, food aid agencies shall not provide food aid to armed personnel at any stage of a DDR programme. As with all food aid programmes, those programmes in support of DDR — and particularly interventions to bring about lasting reintegration — should be based on a careful analysis of the food security situation and an understanding of the vulnerabilities and coping mechanisms of households and communities, to ensure the appropriateness and effectiveness of the assistance offered.

Once the advanced stages of peace negotiations have been reached, a Security Council resolution has been passed or a UN peace operation has been established, the process of re-examining existing food aid plans and working with the inter-agency DDR coordination structures should start. The operational approach should take the specific context into account and be based on quality data and analysis. To plan the programme and logistic aspects of the initial demobilization and reinsertion phases, food assistance agencies usually must rely on data provided by governments, the UN mission and/or the UN DDR unit, and should say what data they need as early as possible to ensure that cooperating partners are informed of these requirements. Generally, data on which reintegration programme planning is based consists of data collected in assessments carried out by humanitarian agencies as part of other food assistance programmes for war-affected populations.

Available and flexible resources are necessary for responding to the changes and unexpected problems that may arise during DDR programmes. A programme should not be implemented unless adequate resources and capacity are in place, including human, financial and logistics resources from donor funds and contributions and the UN mission assessed budget. Maintaining a well-resourced supply of food is essential, because DDR programmes are time-sensitive and volatile. When demobilization begins, food should be available to be pre-positioned and distributed, since delays causing shortage of food can increase the risk of violent responses from combatants waiting to enter DDR.

Generally the main participants in the programme during the disarmament and demobilization phases will be disarmed former combatants (men, women, youth and children who have served as combatants and/or in supporting functions in armed forces and groups, militias, and/or civilian armed groups). Careful consideration must also be given to dealing with the needs of the dependants of ex-combatants. In line with IDDRS guidelines, as civilians, dependants should not be involved in the disarmament and demobilization phases of the programme. However, they should be screened and identified as dependants of an eligible combatant and offered reintegration assistance through processes taking place at the same time.

Food aid is used as one of several inputs during the demobilization, reinsertion and reintegration phases of DDR. Nonetheless, humanitarian agencies shall not distribute food to armed personnel at any time. Any provision of food during actual disarmament should be coordinated by the national government, bilateral donors, the UN mission, and/or other actors not operating under an exclusively humanitarian mandate. During the reinsertion period — i.e., after demobilization at the very beginning of the reintegration period — food aid support (take-home rations) and other possible food-for-work and/or food-for-training programmes can be offered over a limited period of not more than one year. After this, the specific focusing on ex-combatants should be phased out in order to encourage self-reliance and identification with the communities of resettlement, while minimizing resentment from others in the community who do not have access to similar support. Any ongoing efforts to address the vulnerabilities of reintegrated former combatants and their dependants should take place through other programmes of assistance dealing with the needs of the broader war-affected population.1

Food aid programmes within DDR should be specifically aimed at reducing vulnerability and meeting the special nutritional and social needs of vulnerable people in the beneficiary population (e.g. children associated with armed forces and groups, war-disabled ex-combatants, pregnant and lactating women, and those beneficiaries affected by HIV/AIDS or other chronic illness). Staff should be aware of the specific issues facing vulnerable beneficiaries of the DDR programme, and plans should from the start be based on an understanding of legal and humanitarian protocols that explain how to meet the requirements of such people. Consistent with all food aid programmes, those established in support of DDR should be gender-sensitive and be appropriate to the rights and specific needs of women (also see IDDRS 5.10 on Women, Gender and DDR).2

Food aid agencies often provide on-site feeding programmes to support children associated with armed forces and groups, as well as take-home rations that can provide valuable encouragement to children to participate in demobilization and reintegration programmes. Food agencies must, however, offer such aid from the perspective of ‘do no harm’, and with awareness that offering benefits to children and their families might create an incentive for children to join, or re-join, armed forces and groups. Food aid programme staff should be aware of the relevant legal conventions protecting children, and work in close coordination with child protection specialists.

4. Guiding principles and operational requirements

Food aid programmes should be consistent with and guided by all the principles outlined in IDDRS 2.10 on the UN Approach to DDR. Of particular relevance to food aid programming in support of DDR are:

the principle of unity of effort;

humanitarian principles.3

In addition to these, there are some specific principles and operational requirements for providing food aid support to DDR programmes that should be adhered to in order to maximize the chance of success, and allow food assistance to be properly provided. In any circumstance where these conditions are not met, humanitarian agencies should carefully consider the appropriateness of offering food aid support to the programme. The principles and operational requirements are laid out below.

4.1. ‘Do no harm’

Programmes should be designed on the basis of analysis of the political, social and economic context, with careful consideration given to how aid could potentially increase tensions and vulnerabilities, present possibilities for theft or manipulation of aid, or compromise the legitimacy of organizations and actors providing humanitarian and development aid. Decision-making staff should be highly aware of potential unintended negative consequences of their decisions, and every effort should be made to ensure that programmes work positively towards building peace.

4.2. Exclusion of armed personnel

In accordance with humanitarian principles, humanitarian agencies should not provide food aid to armed personnel at any stage of a DDR programme. All reasonable precautions and measures shall be taken to ensure that food aid donated to humanitarian agencies is not taken or used by combatants or warring factions. When food is provided to armed forces and groups during the pre-disarmament and disarmament phases of the programme, governments or peacekeeping actors and their cooperating partners, and not humanitarian agencies, should be responsible for all aspects of the feeding — from the acquisition of food to its distribution.

4.3. Humanitarian food aid

The DDR food assistance component must be designed in accordance with the principles laid down on the use of humanitarian food aid. Food aid should only be provided when assessment reveals that it is an appropriate form of assistance, and should not be used to replace other parts of the DDR programme designed to achieve the same thing. Furthermore, when food assistance is provided as part of DDR processes, the political requirements of the peacekeeping mission and the guiding principles on humanitarian assistance and development aid should be kept completely separate.

4. Coordination

Humanitarian agencies should only provide food aid to comprehensive, coordinated demobilization and reintegration programmes, in close consultation with all relevant UN components (peacekeeping, humanitarian and development), as well as with the government, third parties to the conflict, cooperating partner organizations and donors. Humanitarian agencies responsible for food aid programmes shall not support any DDR programmes if there is not a clear, established institutional and operational framework.

4.5. Timing and exit strategy

Time-frames for each phase of the operation should be clearly defined before launching a food aid programme in support of DDR. In addition, the exit strategy for the UN mission should be defined as part of the overall DDR plan. The UN plan should focus on institutional capacity-building to enable a smooth transition from the short-term work of the UN peacekeeping mission to the medium-term objective of a gradual transfer of responsibilities to government partner institutions in the post-demobilization, social reinsertion phase. However, since DDR programmes can be delayed and schedules changed, flexibility in planning and management is essential for any DDR plan.

4.6. Consultations and planning

The lead food agency (generally the World Food Programme — WFP) should participate in all phases of the negotiating and planning processes that may have a direct or indirect effect on the design and implementation of food assistance programmes during DDR. All cooperating and implementing partners in the food aid programme should be consulted during the planning process in order to establish the appropriate and necessary measures and methods for exchanging information and coordinating activities.

4.7. Funding and resources

Resources and capacity must be available if the programme is to be effective. This includes human, financial and logistic resources from both the UN mission assessed budget and voluntary donations; the presence of adequate numbers of peacekeepers; and security provisions. In order to increase flexibility and ensure that the programme has adequate capacity, ad hoc funds should be made available through donor voluntary contributions and the UN assessed budget to deal with any unexpected problems that may arise. The lead food agency (usually WFP) should support the UN mission administration in defining scenarios and predicting operational costs for such unexpected problems.

4.8. Humanitarian priorities

Humanitarian agencies should be involved in DDR only when they have enough capacity and can do the job better than other actors. Participation in DDR should not undermine a humanitarian food agency’s capacity to deal with other urgent humanitarian problems/crises, nor should it badly affect the process of prioritizing food assistance.

4.9. Reintegration

Experience has shown that when there is a lack of will and/or resources to support long-term reintegration among the governments, donors, funds, agencies and departments involved in DDR, the programme is in danger of failing to meet the objective of supporting a sustainable peace. Food aid should be used to support DDR only if a credible, coordinated and resourced post-demobilization reinsertion programme is in place. Plans for rehabilitation should be included in the overall programme framework, and plans and programmes to start the process of reinsertion and reintegration activities should be finalized, and resources allocated to them in advance.

4.10. Dependants

In deciding how a particular food aid programme will operate (depending on the particular circumstances of the situation that has to be dealt with), careful consideration must be given to how the needs of dependants and relatives of ex-combatants should be met, and, as part of this process, how the disarmament and demobilization programme should most appropriately link to other programmes of assistance that are happening at the same time. This must be guided by an understanding of the type of vulnerabilities that exist, the socio-political and economic context, and the human security/protection problems and concerns in each situation. Contingency plans should be drawn up in case there are dependants needing special care (e.g., those accompanying combatants to the disarmament and demobilization camps; infants and young children of women fighters; and women associated with armed groups and forces in non-combat roles, etc.).

4.11. Vulnerable people

Plans for the cantonment, demobilization and reintegration of former troops should be based, from the start, on an understanding of the urgent legal and humanitarian requirements of the vulnerable groups in DDR programmes, including: children associated with armed forces and groups; pregnant and/or lactating women; people affected by HIV/AIDS; and disabled ex-combatants. Food aid should be nutritionally appropriate and specifically planned to support specialized programmes designed to meet the needs of these groups.4

5. Encouraging recovery and creating food security in post-conflict settings

Destroying food supplies and driving people from their lands have long been tactics in war. As a result, when a peace accord is signed, food is generally scarce among the war-affected population, including demobilizing combatants and their dependants. Both armed forces and armed groups often lack the most basic items as a result of the collapse of military supply systems and wartime mechanisms for acquiring food supplies.

Participants in DDR programmes who receive food assistance are eligible not only because the disruption or collapse of their support systems makes them vulnerable, but also because their status as members of armed groups and forces accustomed to using violence to survive increases the threat that they will return to wartime methods for acquiring food. It is well documented that people who are without food take risks and are aggressive.5 This means that hungry former combatants are a threat to others and could potentially disrupt the peace through attacks and banditry. To minimize the risk that hungry former fighters will raid civilian communities for food, food aid is given as part of the transitional support offered by DDR programmes. The ultimate goal, however, when offering assistance to former combatants, their family dependants and receiving communities, should still be to encourage and assist recovery, rehabilitation and progress towards sustainable self-reliance. Ultimately, hunger and food insecurity limit or prevent human development and the realization of peace, security and human rights.

Generally speaking, in planning food aid programmes, the concept of food security should be broadly applied at both the macro- and household levels, and should take into account not only food supply issues, but also issues of distribution and access, as well as vulnerability to risks that threaten household food security.6 In other words, assistance in the form of food aid should be considered part of the wider strategy to deal with the structural and long-term vulnerabilities of the entire war-effected population. It is both a stopgap (temporary) measure and a preventive, peace-building measure aimed at reducing future deterioration of food security.

Food aid support to a DDR programme is normally just one of many food aid activities that are taking place in a particular country or region during post-conflict transition, and, as with all programmes, it should be based on an understanding of the food security situation, and the vulnerabilities and coping mechanisms of households and communities. It should be seen as part of a coherent, broad strategy to improve the livelihoods, coping mechanisms and food-management skills that already exist in communities so that former combatants are well placed to become contributing members to local food security in the long term.

5.1. Food aid planning data

Food aid programmes as part of DDR will be context-specific; should adopt the appropriate local, country, and/or regional approach to assistance; and should be based on good-quality data and analysis of the social, political and economic context. Food aid should be provided only when an assessment shows that it is a needed, appropriate form of assistance. Often in crisis situations, however, such as post-conflict situations and complex emergencies, food aid relief must initially be based on partially complete information, owing to, among other things, the urgency of the problem, security concerns and access issues. For the purposes of putting together the initial phases of food assistance to the demobilization phase of a DDR process and other assistance programmes, the lead food agency (generally WFP) must often base information about the type of people needing help and logistics and distribution plans on secondary data provided by governments, the UN mission and/or the UN peacekeeping DDR unit.

Nonetheless, as with the planning of other forms of assistance programmes designed to meet the needs of war-affected populations, interventions supporting reinsertion and longer-term reintegration should ideally be based on more accurate data and analysis, to ensure that the programme is designed according to as full an understanding as possible of food security issues in the particular context in which the operation will take place. Generally, data collected through assessments carried out by humanitarian agencies toinform the other forms of assistance involving food aid (refugee and internally displaced persons [IDPs] resettlements, vulnerable groups, food for work [FFW], food for training [FFT], etc.) will be used as the basis for reintegration planning. In all planning of food aid assistance, vulnerability assessments should be carried out if possible at the regional, community and/or household levels to gather data on areas that are particularly vulnerable, as well as communities and households experiencing food insecurity.

Tools available for assessment and analysis may include:

joint WFP–Food and Agriculture Organization crop assessments;

WFP vulnerability assessment mapping analysis and composite household food economy surveys to identify vulnerable geographical areas;

rapid assessments (RAs) and participatory rural assessments (PRAs), both to identify vulnerable communities and to better understand local food management practices.

These assessment methods provide the basis for identifying the needs of communities in specific locations and provide detailed information on food availability, food consumption, coping strategies and causes of food insecurity. When possible, households should be assessed using community-level approaches, which take into account existing social structures, in order to identify the most vulnerable people and to assist in food distribution. Community-based organizations such as women’s organizations and village relief committees can help identify vulnerable households and causes of food insecurity, and are also a resource to help establish better long-term food management systems that will contribute to food security.7

6. Planning food aid assistance to DDR

6.1. Events and circumstances that start the process

The process of re-examining existing food aid plans in place for DDR or the development of a new plan for a country or region should be proactive, and should start in specific circumstances, including:

when a ceasefire agreement or peace accord has been concluded, or an advanced stage of peace negotiations has been reached;

when a Security Council mandate (including the establishment of a UN peace operation or deployment of a peacekeeping mission) has been approved;

when a peace process supported by the active engagement of one or two Member States, a regional body or a combination that includes the UN has been approved.

These events/circumstances should also signal the need for the lead food agency to begin inter-agency coordination, in order to ensure that coordination and the operational requirements of food aid programmes supporting DDR are fully included in the integrated programme framework.

6.2. Coordination

Post-conflict demobilization is a complex logistics operation involving many actors carrying out a large number of interrelated tasks. Effective division of labour and communication among actors is vital if the programme is to be efficient and properly coordinated. The establishment of effective mechanisms for sharing information among the leading food agency (generally WFP) and other UN agencies, as well as peacekeeping actors, donors and cooperating partners, is essential for the safe and successful carrying out of food aid programmes in the context of DDR.

As the lead food aid agency and a major actor in providing other forms of support to the overall DDR programme — among other things, logistic support, road repair, common air services (provided by UN Humanitarian Air Services — UNHAS) and humanitarian demining — WFP should normally become involved in the earliest stages of the integrated planning process at both the country level (through consultation with the Secretary-General’s Special Representative and participation on the DDR task force; and, when appropriate, through the presence of liaison staff in the DDR unit in the field structure) and the Headquarters level (through the Inter-Agency Standing Committee, Integrated Mission Task Force and DDR subgroup) (also see IDDRS 2.30 on Participants, Beneficiaries and Partners).

6.3. Cooperation

Food aid programmes in support of DDR are most often implemented in cooperation with national or international non-governmental partner organizations, making early involvement with cooperating partners an important aspect of programme coordination. At the earliest possible stages, cooperating partner organizations should be brought into the inter-agency planning and coordination process to ensure that information is properly shared and structures are in place for programme monitoring and support.

6.4. Programme components

Before the assembly phase begins, the following parts of the programme should be finalized in the food aid programme plan, and made a part of the inter-agency approach to the DDR programme:

agreement on ration and food basket for assembly and reinsertion periods;

the identification of programme resources;

the establishment of viable distribution mechanisms;

putting plans and resources in place for special feeding programmes (e.g., school/interim care centre [ICC] feeding, HIV/AIDS therapeutic feeding);

making preparations for special project activities (e.g., FFW, FFT, etc.);

the development of a logistics plan;

the establishment of monitoring and reporting systems;

the development of contingency plans;

the establishment of security measures.

6.5. Eligibility for food aid in DDR

Most often, food aid is distributed by agencies with humanitarian mandates, which provide assistance to beneficiaries according need or livelihood, prioritizing assistance for the most vulnerable populations. In a DDR process, owing to the central social and political goals of supporting peace, those who receive assistance (e.g., food, cash allowances or training) may be eligible not just because they are vulnerable, but because they are members of a particular group identified by the DDR programme. This does not mean to say that ex-combatants do not have real humanitarian needs. It should be assumed that vulnerable groups with specific nutritional and other programme needs will be included among the demobilizing groups.

6.5.1. Ex-combatants

Generally, the main participants in the programme during the disarmament and demobilization phases will be disarmed former combatants (men, women, youth and children who have served in any capacity in armed forces and groups, militias and/or civilian armed groups). Depending on the specific eligibility criteria of the programme, participants who have served in support roles to armed forces and groups (administrators, porters and other supporters, or other non-combatants who form part of the armed force or group) will also be registered as participants in the disarmament and demobilization part of the programme.

Within the ex-combatant category, participants with special needs should receive more specifically designed forms of assistance that is appropriate to their nutritional and social situation. Categories of participants with special needs include:

under-age ex-combatants/children associated with armed forces and groups;

pregnant and/or lactating women;

disabled combatants;

people living with HIV/AIDS.

6.5.2. Dependants

Careful consideration must also be given to how to best meet the food aid requirements and other humanitarian needs of the dependants (partners, children and relatives) of ex-combatants. Whenever possible, meeting the needs of this group should be part of broader strategies that are developed to improve food security in receiving communities.

Dependants are eligible for assistance for the DDR programme if they fulfil the vulnerability criteria and/or if their main household income was that of the combatant. The criteria for eligibility for food aid and to assess vulnerability should be agreed upon and coordinated among key national and agency stakeholders in the DDR programme, with humanitarian agencies playing a key role in this process.

Because dependants are civilians, it is not recommended that they be involved in the disarmament and demobilization phases of the programme. However, they should be screened and identified as dependants of an eligible combatant. If disarmament and demobilization are taking place outside the community of origin, this presents several logistics problems.

Food aid distribution/feeding for dependants may be implemented in one of two possible ways. The first of these would involve dependants being cantoned in a separate, nearby camp while combatants are disarmed and demobilized. The second would involve dependants being taken or being asked to go directly to their communities of resettlement. These two approaches would require different methods for distributing food aid. A clear, coordinated approach to inter-agency procedures for meeting the needs of dependants should be outlined for all agency partners that will be involved during the programme-planning process ahead of programme implementation.

It is also essential, when planning food aid benefits for dependent participants, that assistance provided for the reinsertion and reintegration of all DDR beneficiaries (ex-combatants and dependants) be balanced against assistance provided to other returnees as part of the wider recovery programme. When possible, and depending on the operational context of the programme, the needs of dependants might best be met by linking to other programmes of food aid assistance happening at the same time that are designed to assist the recovery of war-affected populations (such as those for vulnerable populations, IDPs or refugee resettlements). This approach should be considered as one of the programming options.

To achieve this coordination effectively, it is necessary to link DDR-related food aid programming assistance to the broader recovery strategy for the country concerned. This should be included in the earliest stages of inter-agency DDR planning and negotiations, so that eligibility criteria and the necessary processes for receiving assistance are clearly communicated to all concerned. It is also essential to work with humanitarian coordinating structures (the United Nations Humanitarian Coordinator and the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) to ensure that these links work properly.

It should be noted that inclusion of dependants in the DDR programme can be difficult to manage. Programme planners may face problems when planning the overall operation and the resources that will be needed, and generally should be prepared to deal with delays and large differences between the actual numbers of participants and the numbers planned for.

6.6. Data needed for planning

Basic quantitative data regarding the number and strength of combatants, and their armaments and location are generally provided by the UN peacekeeping force after consultation with the parties to the peace accord. On the basis of these data, plans are made for the identification and preparation of suitable assembly sites, and for cantonment, disarmament, demobilization and reintegration. These data can also assist in planning food aid support in coordination with other related programmes, such as those assisting groups with special needs.

Early in the integrated planning process, food agencies should provide details of the data they need to the lead coordinating actors so that information can be collected in the early phases of preparing for the programme. Agencies should also be careful to ask for data about less visible groups (e.g., abducted girls) so that these groups can be included in the estimates. It should be noted, however, that acquiring certain data (e.g., accurate numbers and descriptions of members of armed forces and groups) is not always possible, because of the tendency of parties to hide children, ignore (leave out) female associates who were not in combat positions, and increase or reduce figures for political, financial or strategic reasons. Therefore, actual plans are often made according to a best estimate that can only be verified when the operation is in progress, and programmes should be prepared for unexpected or unplanned events/circumstances (also see IDDRS 5.10 on Women, Gender and DDR and IDDRS 5.20 on Youth and DDR)

The following data are essential for food aid programme planning as part of DDR, and should be provided to, or collected by, the lead agency (generally WFP) at the earliest possible stages of planning:

numbers of beneficiaries (disaggregated by sex and age, and with specific assessments of the numbers and characteristics of vulnerable beneficiaries);

numbers of dependants (partners, children, relatives);

beneficiary profiles (i.e., who they are, what their special needs are);

basic nutritional data;

logistics corridors/supply routes;

roads and infrastructure information;

information regarding demining;

other security-related information.

Qualitative data that will be especially useful in planning reintegration activities are also collected before the start of the DDR programme, normally through ad hoc surveys carried out among combatants, associates and their dependants on the initiative of the UN humanitarian co-ordinating body and partner UN agencies. This process is generally carried out in consultation with the national government and third parties. These surveys identify the main features of the social profile of the intended participants. Preliminary data gathered through surveys can be checked and verified at a later stage; e.g., during the identification and registration process carried out in the assembly areas.

Data on food habits and preliminary information on nutritional requirements may also be collected by WFP or other food agencies through ad hoc surveys before, or immediately following, the start of the cantonment process (also see IDDRS 3.10 on Integrated DDR Planning: Processes and Structures).

6.7. Participation

As with all parts of an integrated DDR programme, the food aid planning process should involve, as far as possible, the participation of leaders of stakeholder groups (local government, leaders of armed forces and groups, representatives of civil society and vulnerable groups), in order to better understand the sociopolitical and economic contexts in which DDR-related food assistance programmes are operating, and to create consensus and raise awareness of the benefits offered and procedures for participation. Although the extent to which any group participates should be decided on a case-by-case basis, even limited consultations can improve programme security and increase the appropriateness of the assistance, distribution and monitoring. Such participation builds confidence among ex-combatant groups, improves the programme’s ability to meet the needs of vulnerable groups and helps strengthen links with the receiving community.

In the project design, it should be specified who will participate, how they will work together, and what factors will aid or hinder the process. Participation is a complex process for which there are few principles or approaches that can be used in all situations. However, country offices are encouraged to plan strategically so as to increase participation at different stages of the project cycle.

7. Resources, funding and maintaining the food supply pipeline

In a recent survey of WFP food aid assistance to DDR programmes, it was found that inadequate access to resources was a basic limitation affecting most food assistance programmes supporting DDR.8 The availability and flexibility of resources are essential when responding to the changes and unexpected problems that should be expected when implementing DDR programmes.

7.1. Funding food aid to DDR

Once food aid programme requirements have been identified, the lead food agency (generally WFP) should take part in the drawing up of budget proposals and funding appeals. DDR food aid programmes are often funded as a part of the wider strategy of assistance and recovery, though possible increases in the costs of a DDR food aid programme will depend largely on the resources and organizational capacity in place in each context. A food aid programme in support of DDR should not be implemented in the absence of adequate resources and capacity, including human, financial and logistic resources from donor funds and contributions and the UN mission assessed budget. The UN mission assessed budget should be available to support food aid programme costs and should be designed to take into account unexpected changes to the length of the programme, delays, and other changes that require sufficient and flexible funding (also see IDDRS 2.20 on Post-conflict Stabilization, Peace-building and Recovery Frameworks).

7.2. Maintaining a healthy food supply pipeline

Because of the unexpected changes to the length of the programme, delays, changes in beneficiary numbers, and other unexpected events that food aid programmes face in DDR, maintaining a well-resourced food supply pipeline is essential. DDR programmes are time-sensitive and volatile, and food should be available for pre-positioning and distribution to prevent the risks caused by delays. The pipeline should also have enough resources not only to meet the needs of the present situation, but for other possible circumstances outlined in contingency planning. Voluntary donor contributions and the UN assessed budget should meet the needs of the programme and ensure the availability of adequate food stocks to support the programme.

7.3. Logistics strategy

The primary logistic goal in food aid programmes, including those in support of DDR, is to deliver food supplies to the right place, at the right time and cost, in good condition and with no loss. The main elements of the logistics strategy include:

port(s) of entry — identifying the most appropriate unloading port with the best location, capacity and costs;

location for/of the warehouses in transit and recipient countries;

logistics corridors/routes and means of transport.

The logistics strategy should plan for the following:

organizing transport;

setting up and managing warehouses;

identifying additional needs (in some cases, short-term staff/services needed to provide base camps and vehicles can be arranged though WFP when there is a need to deal with sudden increases in the demand for supplies);

special operations;

recommended logistic arrangements;

cost analysis.

The logistics strategy should be based on the logistics capacity assessment, which gives a detailed overview of the logistics infrastructure of the country, and is generally carried out and updated by the WFP country office annually.

7.3.1. Inter-agency coordination of logistics for DDR

WFP provides logistics to its own operations, but also manages the UN Joint Logistics Centre and UNHAS, which offer inter-agency services that provide support to the humanitarian community. Once the agencies and partners in the DDR programme have been identified, an assessment of their logistics capacity is prepared through discussions, consultations and, if necessary, negotiations, in order to develop the logistics strategy for the DDR operation.

Agreements agreed upon and signed by all the organizations and agencies concerned provide the basis for logistics planning. All partners should formally define their logistics roles and responsibilities, including the reporting and financial obligations of each. Every agreement must deal with logistic issues and clearly define the logistics responsibilities of all participating partners. Results of the assessments of partners’ capacity and WFP structures carried out during the preparation phase should provide the basis for the agreements and eventually should be reflected in them. Particular attention should be given to identifying ways in which WFP can contribute to logistics knowledge and capacity-building during the DDR programme.

8. Designing food aid programmes in support of DDR

8.1. Overview of objectives and activities by phase

Although a national or regional DDR programme operates in different overlapping phases in different localities, food assistance support given to the different phases of DDR (pre-disarmament, assembly following registration and disarmament, demobilization, transitional support and reintegration) each phase has its own particular objectives and therefore takes a different form.

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8.2. Selecting commodities for rations

A cereal that is familiar to beneficiaries, pulses and oil are the basic foods included in most rations. Other items are included to provide extra nutrients if people have no access to fresh foods. When selecting the types of food that will be supplied during encampment and for take-home rations for the reinsertion package, it is important to consider the following issues.

8.2.1. Nutritional and dietary requirements

The mix of food must provide the nutrients required to ensure that beneficiaries are supplied with adequate energy, protein, fat and micronutrients, taking account of what they can acquire from other sources. Particular consideration should also be given to beneficiaries with special nutritional needs (HIV/AIDS-affected, children, pregnant and/or lactating women, etc.).

8.2.2. Local food habits

Foods should be familiar to beneficiaries, be similar to their traditional dietary habits and respect any religious taboos.

8.2.3. Children and elderly people

Families must be able to prepare easily digestible energy-dense foods for young children. Easily chewed and digestible foods are also needed for elderly people.

8.2.4. Ease of transport, storage and use

Foods should be reasonably easy to transport, capable of being stored (including in the average household) and simple to prepare using as little fuel as possible. They must be adapted to the cooking facilities, water and cooking fuel that are available.

8.2.5. Cost-effectiveness, attractiveness and local value

Costs must be taken into account for each of the various items that could be provided:

in relation to the nutrient value the food supplies to beneficiaries;

in relation to local (resale) value: beneficiaries may trade limited quantities of some items to obtain other essential items, e.g., fruits and vegetables from the local market;

with regard to whether some items are more likely to be misappropriated (i.e., stolen, etc.) than others; items that do not reach the groups they are intended for, or that are stolen from them, are of no benefit.

8.2.6. Availability of local commodities

It should be taken into account whether any suitable items can be bought locally or whether they can be obtained in exchange for food aid supplies (especially bulk wheat); the quality and shelf-life of the food available should also be considered. Determine whether whole grains or milled cereals should be provided and whether fortified blended foods might be produced locally rather than being imported.9

8.2.7. Equity with other programmes of assistance

For the reinsertion phase, the principle of equity should be applied when selecting foodstuffs. Food aid benefits provided for reinsertion and reintegration of all DDR participants (ex-combatants and dependants) should be balanced against assistance provided to other returnees as part of the wider recovery programme to avoid treating some war-affected groups unfairly. For instance, careful consideration should be given when offering a more attractive commodity (such as rice) to ex-combatants when the programmes serving the broader communities are providing a less attractive commodity such as bulgur.

8.3. Rations

The primary aims of supplying food aid in most DDR programmes are, in addition to simply feeding hungry people, to encourage ex-combatants and other participants to join the programme, and to provide a transitional safety net in support of reintegration, which means the value and appropriateness of the rations offered are extremely important.

8.3.1. Setting expectations

Before the programme begins, the lead food agency, normally WFP, should distribute information about the benefits (i.e., the rations) offered through the programme and ideally gain buy-in among, and raise awareness through, key leaders and/or representatives of the groups participating in DDR. This is essential if the food aid component of the programme is to be carried out safely and successfully. In the past, wrong or misleading information has created dissatisfaction with some of the food items offered to beneficiaries. This has created security threats and, as far as possible, should be avoided in the future.

8.3.2. Resources for food aid

Having one lead agency in food assistance in DDR programmes will permit a more cost-effective operation and minimize coordination problems. Generally, WFP takes the lead role and will supply standard rations for food aid programmes in the context of DDR. In some cases, to improve the quality and variety of the food that is provided, extra supplies may be contributed by donors and other agencies. These actors can also provide non-food items required for the preparation and distribution of food (e.g., cooking pots, charcoal, paper plates, condiments, etc).

Experience has shown that the sharing of responsibilities between humanitarian and government actors in the provision of food must be done with care, and only in very special circumstances. In countries emerging from conflict situations, governments generally have limited capacity and/or resources to ensure timely and regular food aid supplies.

8.3.3. Food rations during the assembly phase

During the assembly phase, food assistance has both nutritional and incentive functions. Demobilizing combatants have very limited buying power, and when they are grouped in camps, their access to alternative sources of income and food security is restricted. In addition, their health may be poor after the prolonged isolation they have experienced and poor food they have eaten during wartime.

Internationally donated food aid is usually the only food available at assembly areas, which are generally isolated from outside commercial food supply networks (shops, supermarkets, etc.). Former combatants see the regular provision of food assistance as proof of the commitment by the government and the international community to support the transition to peace. On the other hand, insufficient, irregular or below-standard food assistance can disturb the process and become a source of friction and protest. Every reasonable measure should be taken to ensure that, at the very minimum, standard rations are distributed during this phase.

During cantonment, the type of food supplied to demobilizing personnel should normally be more varied than in standard WFP emergency operations, and the rations better than standard requirements. However, standard WFP emergency food baskets can be supplied to family dependants if they are included as programme beneficiaries (the identification of dependant beneficiaries will often take place outside of the disarmament and demobilization camps). When a very long stay in the camps is expected, a more expensive commodity (e.g., oil) should also be included in the basket, whenever possible, which can be sold or exchanged for other supplies, allowing households to manage their food supplies better.

The following is an example of a recommended food basket for ex-combatants and dependants during the disarmament and demobilization phase (including supplemental food):10

Click here to see the chart in a new window.

In the example above, the overall nutritional value of the food baskets for the ex-combatants and their family dependants is, respectively, 2,550 and 2,100 kilocalories (kcal) per day. While the diet may vary, depending on local markets and food habits, the above nutritional values should give a basic idea of what should be supplied.

Fresh vegetables and fruit, or other foods to increase the nutritional value of the food basket, should be supplied when alternative sources can be found and if they can be stored and distributed.

8.3.4. Prepared meals during encampment

Although generally the programmes should not encourage demobilized ex-combatants and/or dependants to stay for long periods in the demobilization camps, prepared foods may be served in the camps when it is more appropriate than creating cooking spaces and/or providing equipment for participants to prepare their own food. In recent programmes in Liberia, Sierra Leone and Burundi, food has been supplied by WFP and partner agencies have been responsible for preparing and serving the meals. In Liberia, for example, each adult ex-combatant received through a wet feeding programme: 450 grams (g) of rice; 50 g pulses; 30 g vegetable oil; 5 g sugar; and 5 g salt. Doing this will not be appropriate in all cases, and it should be carefully thought out in each specific context — taking into account security, resources and the fact that providing a food basket encourages participants to become more self-reliant, because they have to prepare the food themselves.

8.3.5. Post-demobilization and social reinsertion take-home rations

Once demobilization has been completed and during the period when ex-combatants rejoin civilian society, food aid is part of a broader resettlement and social reinsertion package made available by governments and the international community. Food aid can provide a form of transitional safety net and supports the establishment of medium-term household food security. The following is an example of a food basket for the reinsertion phase, providing the recommended overall nutritional value for food aid during this phase of approximately 2,100 kcal per day.

Click here to see the chart in a new window.

A general guideline is that food should be provided for three months; however, benefits should be determined on a case-by-case basis, and should be appropriate to a particular context. The following should be taken into account when deciding on the length of time that the take-home ration should cover:

whether ex-combatants will be transported by vehicle to the area of resettlement or whether they will have to carry the ration;

level of assistance when they reach the community of resettlement;

resources available to the DDR food aid programme;

the timing and expected yields/production of the next harvest;

the prospects for the re-establishment of employment and other income-generating activities, or the creation of new opportunities;

the overall food policy for the area, taking account of the total economic, social and ecological situation and related recovery and development activities.

The aim must always be to encourage the re-establishment of self-reliance from the earliest possible moment — minimizing the possible negative effects of distributing food aid over a long period of time.

8.3.6. Equity with other assistance programmes

Standard rations should be used during the reinsertion stage. Even during the early stages of reintegration support, assistance to DDR programme participants should, in principle, be equal to the assistance received by other beneficiaries being assisted through other programmes offering relief and recovery food assistance (IDPs, returning refugees, etc.). Provision of special rations to DDR programme participants (though possibly effective in increasing the incentives for them to take part in DDR) should always be seen in the context of the needs and resources of the broader populations. If communities think that preferential treatment is being given to ex-combatants, this can cause resentment in these communities, and there is the danger that aid organizations will no longer be seen as being neutral. It is extremely important to manage public information and community perceptions when sensitizing the receiving community. Every effort to achieve an equal standard of living for ex-combatants, dependants and other members of the community of resettlement should be made in order to minimize the risks that benefits given through DDR could fuel tensions among these groups.

8.3.7. How long assistance lasts

The strategic objective of food aid support during these early stages of reintegration is to assist beneficiaries to achieve household food security and economic self-reliance. As part of the reinsertion process, if possible, there should be several occasions when food assistance is distributed (i.e. it should not be distributed all at once), but it should not be provided for longer than a year — though other forms of specifically focused assistance may be provided to ex-combatants through other programmes delivered by agencies with different mandates, including agriculture programmes that try to build up long-term food security (also see IDDRS 2.10 on the UN Approach to DDR)11.

It should be noted that ex-combatants and their dependants will probably continue to receive food aid as beneficiaries of other food aid programmes designed for the broader war-affected population. Moving beneficiaries of the targeted DDR food aid programmes into the broader programmes serves two purposes. First, it supports the goal of integrating ex-combatants into receiving communities by identifying them as part of the community (instead of as ex-combatants). In addition, as ex-combatants and their dependants often settle in new locations after demobilization, it generally ceases to be economically viable to continue to provide food aid to these individuals specifically. Integration into broader programmes of assistance is a more efficient approach in the reintegration period, and this is what should be aimed for.

8.3.8. Rations for vulnerable groups and groups with special needs

When providing food aid to DDR programme participants with special needs, it should be decided on a case-by-case basis how rations and/or distribution methods should be best adapted to each individual. Children, pregnant and lactating women, the elderly and HIV/AIDS-affected individuals may have specific nutritional needs. In many cases, ex-combatants with special needs should be referred as soon as possible to specialized programmes running at the same time (such as therapeutic feeding programmes for HIV/AIDS-affected people, or the ICCs for children associated with armed forces and groups coordinated by the UN Children’s Fund [UNICEF], or special programmes for female-headed households, especially those headed by very young women or girl mothers), where they will receive the appropriate food aid assistance and other relevant support.

Feeding and rations selected for vulnerable groups and groups with special needs should be in line with the nutritional requirements for these groups given in the WFP Programme Guidance Manual. To be granted access to this manual, email PGM.HelpDesk@wfp.org (also see IDDRS 5.10 on Women, Gender and DDR; IDDRS 5.20 on Youth and DDR; IDDRS 5.30 on Children and DDR; IDDRS 5.60 on HIV/AIDS and DDR; and IDDRS 5.70 on Health and DDR).

8.4. Distribution mechanisms

Generally, DDR programmes distribute food aid in two different contexts: the cantonment context, when the participants are concentrated in specific locations; and the reinsertion–reintegration context, when the demobilized personnel and their dependants have returned to home areas and are spread over a very wide area. These two contexts require the establishment of different distribution mechanisms.

8.4.1. Distribution during cantonment

When participants are grouped in specific cantonments, food aid is distributed in a way similar to that in a typical encampment relief situation. Under ideal conditions, when all the necessary preparations have been made and there are no external circumstances that are negatively affecting the plan, food distribution programmes in assembly areas should not cause any particular operational problems.

8.4.2. Distribution during reintegration

The food aid for the reinsertion/reintegration part of the DDR programme can be distributed entirely during demobilization, through a one-off distribution, or in two or more phases, with the first part issued during demobilization from the assembly areas (i.e., the food for reinsertion take-home package), and a follow-up distribution during the social adjustment and reinsertion period in the provinces or regions of resettlement.12

8.4.3. Distributing food to vulnerable groups

As far as possible, feeding, rations, FWW and other programmes should specifically try to reduce vulnerability and meet the special needs of the more vulnerable beneficiaries.

Staff, including those working on the food aid part of DDR programmes, should be aware of the specific difficulties facing the different types of vulnerable individuals among the DDR programme participants. Plans for the cantonment, demobilization and reintegration of troops should, from the start, deal with the legal and humanitarian requirements of the vulnerable groups in DDR programmes (e.g., children associated with armed forces and groups, war-disabled ex-combatants and participants with chronic illnesses). Although all women may not make up a vulnerable group, the nutrition of women who are lone heads of household or sole caregivers of children often suffers when there is a scarcity of food: special attention should therefore be paid to food aid for households with female heads (also see IDDRS 5.10 on Women, Gender and DDR; IDDRS 5.20 on Youth and DDR; IDDRS 5.30 on Children and DDR; IDDRS 5.60 on HIV/AIDS and DDR; and IDDRS 5.70 on Health and DDR).

Click here to see the chart in a new window.

8.5. Children associated with armed forces and groups

It is the stated position of the international community, including child protection specialists dealing with children in armed conflict, that dealing with children during DDR programmes shall not be dependent on adult DDR taking place, nor shall it be reliant on political negotiations. Therefore, food aid support may be offered to child demobilization and reintegration programmes taking place either within or outside the context of a peacekeeping environment.

In a peacekeeping situation where there is a formal integrated DDR programme in place, the parts of the programme for children associated with armed forces and groups are generally linked and carried out at the same time as the processes of the adult DDR programme. Children and young people associated with armed forces and groups are generally immediately brought into ICCs, where UNICEF or another specialized agency takes the lead in coordinating the reintegration programmes. Food aid agencies often provide on-site feeding programmes and take-home rations, which can provide both a valuable incentive to participate, as well as important nutritional support.

In DDR programmes in the past, children have been excluded from receiving benefits through formal programmes, and offering supplemental humanitarian food aid has been a key part of support during demobilization and reintegration. Children associated with armed forces and groups are particularly vulnerable to re-recruitment, and, because of this, food aid can provide valuable support for programmes of education, training, rehabilitation and reunification with their families and communities.

However, choosing the appropriate programme benefits that will be provided, particularly when dealing with children associated with armed forces and groups, including former child combatants, should only be done after careful analysis of the situation and context, and guided by the principle of ‘do no harm’. Although food aid benefits can in some cases offer these children incentives to reintegrate into their communities, agencies must consider the possible increased risks that offering benefits could cause by creating an incentive for children to join, or re-join, fighting forces and groups. Also, these benefits might have the effect of recruiting non-associated children into the programme, as was reported in Liberia.

Food aid programme staff should be aware of the relevant legal conventions and the key issues and vulnerabilities that have to be dealt with when assisting children associated with armed forces and groups, and work closely with child protection specialists when developing programmes. In addition, appropriate reporting mechanisms should be established in advance with specialized agencies to deal with problems relating to child protection and other issues that arise during child demobilization (also see IDDRS 5.20 on Youth and DDR and IDDRS 5.30 on Children and DDR).

8.6. Women

It is important to note that in each context in which DDR takes place, women, men, girls and boys will have different needs, and food aid programmes in support of DDR should be designed to take this into account. In particular, humanitarian staff should be aware of the nutritional needs of women and girls and of protection/human rights issues of special relevance to women and girls that may arise in DDR encampment sites.

As with other benefits offered through the DDR programme, the programme should ensure that women are the direct recipients of their food aid benefits; that they are able to keep any help that they receive; and that they are able to make their own choices about their lives during the reintegration phase. In order to achieve this, it is essential that women and women’s groups, as well as child advocacy groups, be closely involved in DDR programme planning and implementation.

8.6.1. Gender principles in humanitarian programmes

DDR programmes offer support to female ex-combatants, women and girls associated with armed forces and groups in supporting roles, and female dependent participants, and in line with other programmes offering humanitarian assistance, the food aid part of DDR should apply the following principles:

actively support and encourage gender equality and the equal protection of women’s and men’s human rights;

in carrying out humanitarian and peace-building activities, pay special attention to the violation of women’s rights and try to remedy this;

ensure equal representation of women and men in peace mediation and decision-making at all levels and stages of humanitarian assistance;

guarantee participation of women’s organizations in capacity-building for humanitarian response, rehabilitation and recovery.13

8.6.2. Nutritional needs of pregnant and lactating women

During pregnancy and nursing, unless women receive the required calorie and nutrient intake, their own health and that of their unborn or newborn children are at risk. Children exposed to such early malnutrition are likely to die or fail to develop to their full physical and mental potential, thus continuing the pattern of malnutrition and poverty passed on from generation to generation.

8.6.3. Female beneficiaries and protection and human rights issues

Humanitarian staff should also be aware of problems concerning protection and human rights that are especially relevant to women and girls that may arise in DDR encampment sites. Codes of conduct and appropriate reporting and enforcement mechanisms should be established in advance among the UN agencies and the appropriate human rights, child protection and other relevant actors to deal with gender-based violence, sexual exploitation and human rights abuses. There should also be strict procedures in place to protect women and girls from sexual exploitation by those who control access to food supplies. Staff and participants alike should be aware of the proper channels available to them for reporting cases or attempted cases of abuse linked to food distribution.

Food distribution arrangements should also be designed in consultation with women to avoid putting them at risk. In cases where rations are to be collected from distribution points, a gendered assessment of where food distribution points are to be located should take place in order to allow women to collect the rations themselves and to avoid difficult and unsafe travel. It should also be determined whether special packaging is needed to make the collection and carrying of food rations by women easier. Women should be encouraged to receive the food themselves, but should be given the right to formally designate someone to collect the rations on their behalf (also see IDDRS 5.10 on Women, Gender and DDR).14

9. Food aid during reintegration

The link between learning and nutrition is well established, and inter-agency collaboration should ensure that all former combatants who enter training and education programmes in the transition period are properly nourished. As the programme moves into the reintegration phase, providing food aid to DDR programme participants should be gradually phased out, as they become better assimilated into receiving communities and achieve standards of living similar to these communities. DDR programme participants should eventually be included in a community-based rehabilitation approach, and should get their food in the same way as members of these communities, rather than receive special supplies of food as demobilized combatants. Ultimately, they should be seen as part of the community and take part in programmes covering broader recovery efforts.

In broader operations in post-conflict environments during the recovery phase, in which there are pockets of relative security and political stability and greater access to groups in need, general free food distribution is gradually replaced by help directed at particular groups, to develop the ability of affected populations to meet their own food needs and work towards long-term food security. Activities should be closely linked to efforts to restart positive coping mechanisms and methods of households supplying their own food by growing it themselves or earning the money to buy it.

9.1. Reintegration activities

The following activities should be a part of programmes designed for the reintegration phase of DDR:

providing employment through FFW activities that directly benefit the selected populations and restore food security (construction of feeder roads, infrastructure rehabilitation);

providing support directed at specific vulnerable groups (feeding programmes at the ICCs for child soldiers and children associated with armed forces and groups, feeding for people affected by HIV/AIDS or food for HIV/AIDS education and awareness programmes, etc.);

providing support to restore production capacity and increase food production by households;

providing agricultural kits, including seeds and tools;

supplemental nutritional programmes;

providing support for local markets through buying supplies for DDR programmes locally, encouraging private sector involvement in food transport and delivery, and supporting social market outlets and community-based activities such as small enterprises for both women and men;

encouraging participation in education and skills training (FFT, education, adult literacy);

maintaining the capacity to respond to emergencies and setbacks;

expanding emergency rehabilitation projects and reintegration projects;

running household food security projects (urban/rural).

10. Monitoring and evaluation

To encourage accountability and to improve on the methods of implementing food aid programmes in support of DDR, mechanisms for monitoring and evaluation are essential parts of the food aid programmes. Arrangements for monitoring the distribution of aid should be made in advance between the lead food agency (normally WFP) and the cooperating partner organizations implementing the programmes.

10.1. Monitoring food distribution

As with all food aid operations, programmes in support of DDR should monitor the food distribution process; the minimum requirement is for information gathered on:

the receipt and delivery of commodities;

the number (disaggregated by sex and age) of people receiving assistance;

food storage, handling and the distribution of commodities;

food aid availability and unmet needs;

inequalities in distribution.

There are two main activities for gathering this information:

Distribution monitoring: This type of monitoring includes several activities such as commodity monitoring, on-site monitoring and food basket monitoring. This monitoring is conducted on the day of distribution;

Post-distribution monitoring: This monitoring takes place some time after the distribution, but before the next one. It includes monitoring of the way in which food aid is used in households and communities, and market surveys.

10.1.1. Participant data collection and segmentation in DDR

As with other sector programmes included in DDR, for the purposes of increasing the effectiveness of current and future food aid programming, it is particularly important for data on participants to be collected so that they can be easily disaggregated. Numerical data should be systematically collected for the following categories: ex-combatants, associates and dependants (partners, dependants and relatives of ex-combatants); and every effort should be made to segment the data by:

sex and age;

vulnerable group category (children associated with armed forces and groups, HIV/AIDS affected people, disabled combatants);

DDR location(s);

armed force/group affiliation;

non-combatants associated with armed forces and groups (if this is relevant to the programme).15

10.2. Programme evaluations

Also, identifying lessons learned, and post-programme evaluations of the short- and long-term impacts of DDR programmes help to improve the approach to delivering food aid within DDR programmes and the broader inter-agency approach to DDR. The country office of the lead food agency, generally WFP, should ensure that a comprehensive evaluation of the disarmament and demobilization phases of the food programme is carried out when the reintegration process is under way, and preferably not later than one year after the conclusion of the demobilization phase. The evaluation should provide an in-depth analysis of the food aid-related activity during the different phases of the DDR programme and include information that will allow the activities carried out during the reintegration phase to be reviewed and, if necessary, redesigned/reoriented. Lessons learned should be recorded and shared with all relevant stakeholders to guide future policies and to improve the effectiveness of future planning of and support to operations.

Annex A: Terms, definitions, and abbreviations

Terms and definitions

The following terms and definitions are taken from the World Food Programme Design Manual, unless otherwise cited.

Coping mechanisms: The methods by which members of households try to deal with a crisis. For example, at times of severe food insecurity, household members may (1) make greater use than normal of wild foods, (2) plant other crops, (3) seek other sources of income, (4) rely more on gifts and remittances, (5) sell off assets to buy food and (6) migrate. Coping mechanisms should be discouraged if they lead to disinvestment, if they reduce a household’s capacity to recover its long-term capacity to survive, and if they harm the environment. Positive coping mechanisms should be encouraged and strengthened.

‘Do no harm’: An approach that tries to avoid unintended negative impacts of development and other interventions.

Evaluation: Evaluation is a management tool. It is a time-bound activity that systematically and objectively assesses the relevance, performance and success of ongoing and completed programmes and projects. Evaluation is carried out selectively, asking and answering specific questions to guide decision makers and/or programme managers. Evaluation determines the relevance, efficiency, effectiveness, impact and sustainability of a programme or project.

Food for training (FFT): Programme in which food is supplied on condition that the recipient attends a training programme.

Food for work (FFW): FFW projects and activities are those in which food is given as full or part payment for work performed in the context of a supervised work programme.

Food insecurity: A situation where people lack secure access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food for normal growth and development, and an active and healthy life. Food insecurity may be caused by the unavailability of food, insufficient purchasing power, inappropriate distribution, or inadequate use of food at the household level.

Food security: A situation where all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. (Note: This definition includes the following three key dimensions of food security: sufficient availability of food; adequate access to food; and appropriate utilization of food.)

Livelihood: The capabilities, assets (including both material and social assets) and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, and maintain or improve its capabilities and assets, while not undermining the natural resource base.

Monitoring: Monitoring is a management tool. It is the systematic oversight of the implementation of an activity that establishes whether input deliveries, work schedules, other required actions and targeted outputs have proceeded according to plan, so that timely action can be taken to correct deficiencies.

Participatory rural assessment (PRA): Tool designed, in a WFP intervention, to assess rural people’s perceptions, access to and control over resources, attitudes, benefits, decision-making positions, constraints and degree of involvement.

Protection: All activities that are aimed at obtaining full respect for the rights of the individual, in accordance with the letter and spirit of international human rights law, international humanitarian law and refugee law.16

Rapid assessment (RA): Assessment that uses a variety of survey techniques for quick and inexpensive assessment. Rapid appraisals tend to be qualitative rather than quantitative, and they depend more on the ability and judgement of the person carrying out the survey than do other research methods that are more rigorous, but also slower and costlier.

Sustainable livelihoods approach: Approach that tries to ensure that households can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks, and maintain and improve their capabilities and assets now and in the future.17

Vulnerability: In terms of food supply, the presence of factors that place people at risk of becoming food insecure or malnourished, including those factors that affect their ability to cope. Generally, vulnerability is a result of exposure to risk factors, and of underlying socio-economic processes, which reduce the capacity of populations to cope with risks.

Abbreviations

DDR FFT FFW g ICC IDDRS IDP kcal UN UNHAS WFP

disarmament, demobilization and reintegration food for training food for work gram(s) interim care centre integrated disarmament, demobilization and reintegration standard/standards internally displaced person kilocalories United Nations UN Humanitarian Air Services World Food Programme

Annex B: Further reading

Greenberg, Meagan, WFP (World Food Programme of the United Nations) Assistance to Post-Conflict Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Programmes: A Survey, WFP, Rome, 2004.

Kievelitz, U., T. Schaef, M. Leonhardt, H. Hahn and S. Vorwerk, Practical Guide to Multilateral Needs Assessments in Post-conflict Situations, a joint UN Development Group (UNDG), UN Development Programme (UNDP) and World Bank guide, prepared by Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) with the support of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), Eschborn, Germany, 2004.

Lassila, S. (WFP), A. Shotton (WFP) and M. Okumba (consultant), Gender Sensitive Food Aid Programming Training Manual for WFP Gender Trainers, WFP, Rome, 2000.

World Food Programme (WFP), Operational Guidelines for WFP Assistance to Demobilization and Reintegration Programmes (DRPs) in Countries Emerging from Conflict Situations, WFP, Rome, 1998.

——, Participatory Techniques and Tools: A WFP Guide, WFP, Rome, 2001.

——, Enhanced Commitments to Women to Ensure Food Security Policy, WFP, Rome, 2002.

——, Food Distribution Guidelines, WFP, Rome, 2003.

——, Humanitarian Principles Policy Paper, WFP, Rome, 2004.

——, Transition from Relief to Development Policy, WFP, Rome, 2004.

——, WFP Transport Manual, WFP, Rome, 2004.

——, WFP Programme Guidance Manual, WFP, Rome, 2005.