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Demobilization

Summary

Demobilization is both a physical and a mental process.1 The physical aspect involves the separation of an armed element (i.e., a soldier/combatant) from the systematic command and control structure of an armed force or group, thereby either reducing the number of combatants in an armed force or group, or disbanding it in its entirety. This physical aspect, as an element of security sector reform (SSR), in addition to dealing with the potential threat posed by the continued presence of armed anti-State elements and criminals, can be used to remove from service in either military or police forces members who are considered to be surplus, thus contributing to the downsizing of the armed forces, if this is considered appropriate for the needs of the State. This has economic and security implications in that it allows a State, in a period of transition from conflict to peace, to reduce the size of its security forces while keeping those personnel most appropriate to its present requirements and simultaneously finding alternate livelihoods for the remainder.

The mental aspect of the demobilization process involves preparing the disarmed individual to find his/her place in civil society without the camaraderie and support systems of the structured armed force or group. This is a longer-term objective, and can be regarded as a by-product of successful reinsertion.

The phase of physical demobilization should be jointly planned and developed by an inter-agency team. The military have an important role to play in both disarmament and demobilization, particularly with regard to security and links to SSR. However, whereas disarmament is primarily the responsibility of the military, supported by civilian staff, demobilization is primarily the responsibility of the civilian component of the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) programme, with military support. Civil–military cooperation is the key to efficiency in this part of DDR operations.

The mental process is supported by civilian specialist agencies offering readjustment counselling, personal profiling in identifying appropriate reinsertion options, domestic support, and a certain amount of monitoring and general support during the reinsertion process.

Demobilization is an integral part of DDR. Whether at the political/institutional level or at the individual or group level, it is voluntary. Demobilization normally follows individual disarmament, and must in turn be followed by a long-term reintegration programme. After a conflict, in particular one that has been civil or ethnicity based, reintegration requires both social and psychological rehabilitation, whether combatants are later recruited into new, more formalized and disciplined groupings, i.e., the national military or police services, or reinserted into the civilian community. In preparation for this phase, the demobilization process should include guidance and education to equip participants to more easily make the transition from combatant status to either new roles in national service, or a return to civil society.

1. Module scope and objectives

The aim of this module is to equip the reader with practical tools and suggestions on the design and management of demobilization activities. Various methods for demobilization are examined, from which the DDR practitioner may select those that best meet the specific needs of each situation.

2. Terms, definitions and abbreviations

Annex A contains a list of the abbreviations used in this standard. A complete glossary of all the terms, definitions and abbreviations used in the series of integrated DDR standards (IDDRS) is given in IDDRS 1.20.

In the IDDRS series, the word ‘shall’, ‘should’ and ‘may’ are used to indicate the intended degree of compliance with the standards laid down. This use is consistent with the language used in the International Organization for Standardization standards and guidelines:

a) ‘shall’ is used to indicate requirements, methods or specifications that are to be applied in order to conform to the standard.

b) ‘should’ is used to indicate the preferred requirements, methods or specifications.

c) ‘may’ is used to indicate a possible method or course of action.”

3. Introduction

Demobilization, as a component of the DDR process, officially certifies an individual’s change of status from military to civilian. Demobilization is generally a lengthier process than disarmament, and involves the psychological transformation from military to civilian. As such, it lays the groundwork that is essential for the reintegration of the individual into civilian life. Individual demobilization mirrors the wider demobilization of a society emerging from conflict, and is an important symbolic phase in the consolidation of peace.

4. Guiding principles

Demobilization must be planned according to the following guidelines:

Respect for engagements and commitments: Promises about post-demobilization packages must be honoured;

Unity of effort: The physical phase of demobilization involves civil–military cooperation; United Nations (UN)–non-governmental organization (NGO) collaboration; and collaboration among DDR participants, communities, the government and the UN;

Non-discrimination, and fair and equal treatment: Appropriate attention should be given to the needs of women, youth and children so that (1) they are not excluded; and (2) their security is assured throughout the demobilization process;

Human and community security: Demobilization is the phase where reintegration needs are identified. It is important that between the demobilization and reintegration phases, links be developed with national authorities, communities and other stakeholders, to ensure a smooth transition between the two phases.

5. Planning factors

5.1. Security

Ensuring the security of participants is essential to the DDR process. In the unpredictable and volatile context in which DDR takes place, the risk of spontaneous violence within and between disarmed groups cannot be overruled. Such occurrences can place the whole peace process at risk. In any event, DDR participants who have disarmed may have concerns regarding their own security. Personal security shall be assured, from disarmament right into the reintegration phase. This usually requires awareness and attention from the UN military and UN Police (UNPOL) elements supporting the process.

5.2. Location

Where security permits, demobilization should be done in the community of settlement. Residential options should be avoided where possible. If the DDR process is included in a peace agreement, the location of demobilization sites should be defined in that agreement and be agreed to by all parties to it. Demobilization sites should be easily accessible to each faction, be located in the area under their control, and be secured by neutral forces. Demobilization sites or internment camps for guerrilla forces operating from neighbouring countries can be set up in those countries, and disarmament can take place there as well, if relevant political agreements exist (also see IDDRS 5.40 on Cross-border Population Movements).

Responsibility for the establishment, security and supply of demobilization sites is generally assumed by UN peacekeeping troops, UNPOL and/or various UN agencies. Availability of water, accessibility by road and air, and the condition of the terrain are some important determining factors for their location.

5.3. Size and capacity

The size and capacity of demobilization camps are determined by the number of combatants to be discharged and the time required for processing them.

It is recommended that, where possible, camps for smaller numbers of ex-combatants should be considered, as they are easier to administer, control and secure. However, having many small camps at once can also lead to widely dispersed resources and difficult logistic and other support issues. Modular camps designed to accommodate up to 600 persons are recommended, but when time constraints mean that larger numbers have to be dealt with in a short period of time, two modular camps may be constructed simultaneously and managed by the same team (see Annex B for an example of a typical modular camp). In order to maximize the use of the camps and avoid bottlenecks or other problems in the demobilization stage, the operational plan should carefully provide methods for controlling the number and flow of people to be demobilized in each group dealt with at any particular time.

Carrying out demobilization in phases is one option to increase efficiency. This process may include a pilot test phase, which makes it possible to learn from mistakes in the early phases and adapt the process so as to improve performance in later phases. As with disarmament, clear and replicable procedures (i.e., procedures that can be repeated in different contexts) allow a reduction in personnel training costs, more efficient use of resources, and better prospects for a sustainable programme. Successful demobilization requires a commitment from all the parties involved and strict adherence to the timetable. Where these are not in place, mobile DDR operations become more uncertain, and may depend on the willingness of groups to enter the programme, the specific geographical area where the mobile camps are situated, and their proximity to a safe border.

5.4. Information management: Databases

A secure database of all the participants in the DDR process, containing the details collected during the screening process, needs to be established as early as possible. This database is essential to track the reintegration of DDR participants and follow up on protection and human rights issues. It should be mobile, suitable for use in the field, cross-referenced and be able to provide DDR teams with a clear overall view of where participants have reintegrated and what their cumulative profiles are.

The establishment of an effective and reliable means of registration and recording is essential to the demobilization process. A good-quality information management system should be installed, tested and secured before operations start. While the Joint Logistics Operation Centre (JLOC) is responsible for providing equipment, and the camp manager for maintenance, it is the DDR unit information systems officer who should ensure the suitability of the equipment (hardware and software) for the intended purpose. He/She may occasionally require the assistance of information technology (IT) technical staff.

5.5. Inter-agency coordination

Demobilization sites should be properly planned, prepared and managed. This could involve the establishment of an inter-agency co-ordination group, which may also include donor representatives.

The most important body that staff implementing DDR should liaise with is the national commission on DDR (NCDDR), which is the body responsible for the overall carrying out and supervision of the process. At both the regional level and at the disarmament and demobilization sites, the camp manager and military commander form the core of the DDR implementing group, which should also include the operational implementation partners responsible for each site. DDR managers at the regional and subregional levels should adequately liaise with local leaders and security implementers to ensure that nearby communities are not badly affected by the demobilization camp or process.

5.6. Links with reintegration

Integrated DDR design is based on an understanding that disarmament, demobilization and reintegration are fundamentally indivisible and interlinked at both the strategic and the operational levels. Maintaining this indivisibility requires a seamless transition from one phase of the process to another. Experience from several peacekeeping missions, including Kosovo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sierra Leone and Liberia, has highlighted the risks of disjointed DDR operations in which the three elements are not properly integrated. They can become disjointed for a combination of reasons: insufficient or inflexible funding mechanisms from widely different donors; the uncertainty of voluntary contributions; and unrealistic time-lines or far too many beneficiaries resulting from inappropriate entry criteria, all of which rapidly use up limited resources during the disarmament/demobilization phase. This can cause frustration and possibly civil unrest, which, in extreme circumstances, could cause the collapse of peace-building efforts and bring about a return to violence. Therefore, it is vital that reintegration programmes be prepared to receive demobilized personnel immediately after they have been demobilized. It is the responsibility of the various actors in the planning cycle, i.e., UN Headquarters, mission headquarters, UN agencies, donors and the DDR team, to ensure that sufficient funds, resources and capacity exist in order to carry out simultaneous planning and preparation for DDR. The availability of assessed contributions for a peacekeeping mission to fund reinsertion projects can lessen the pressure to develop an instantly available reintegration programme (also see IDDRS 2.10 on the UN Approach to DDR).

A focus on community-based reintegration is at the core of DDR. Demobilization should therefore be linked to projects that benefit both the community and ex-combatants. Labour-intensive projects are of particular value, as they can keep often-restless ex-combatants busy in the short term.

5.7. Striking a balance between assistance and rewards

Cash assistance is often viewed by former combatants and their commanders as ‘cash for weapons’. Recent field reports indicate that ‘buy-back’ schemes rarely have the desired effect; instead, old and unserviceable weapons are often submitted to allow combatants to enter the demobilization phase while commanders hold on to serviceable weapons as protection in case of the failure of the peace process. Furthermore, ‘buy-back’ schemes can increase arms flows into a country and actually encourage cross-border arms trading by creating a new ‘market’ for weapons. Surveys of the quality of the weapons handed in and the price of arms on the black market should be used to monitor the process and avoid such situations (also see IDDRS 4.10 on Disarmament).

The civilian population often go through far worse experiences than combatants during armed conflict, and are likely to become resentful if ex-combatants receive relatively large benefits before they are reintegrated into war-torn and poor communities. Such post-conflict inequity (unfairness) may undermine conciliatory efforts, making it difficult to carry out meaningful social reintegration programmes. During the strategic planning phase, as well as in the development of the operational plan, every effort should be made to avoid making disparities in wealth worse between DDR participants and the general population.

5.8. Links with security sector reform

DDR is just one component of the peace-building strategy of a country. After a conflict, the security apparatus of the state (including the judiciary and correctional systems, as well as law-enforcement agencies) in post-conflict countries may undergo major reforms. They may have been at the source of, or one of the contributing factors to, the conflict. Links should be developed between parallel reform initiatives in the security sector. For example, the police, gendarmerie and restructured army may be potential sources of employment for demobilized combatants. The restructuring process may also create large numbers of combatants to be demobilized. Discharged combatants wanting to join the security forces must go through an appropriate selection procedure, including vetting (also see IDDRS 4.50 on UN Police Roles and Responsibilities). Those meeting predetermined criteria can be identified as potential candidates for the new armed forces during the demobilization operation.

5.9. Public information and awareness-raising

A strong public information campaign should be run to provide accurate and detailed information on the DDR process, including the demobilization activities. This can help to provide former combatants with realistic expectations and to deal with rumours and other types of misinformation that may create negative attitudes to DDR (also see IDDRS 4.60 on Public Information and Strategic Communication in Support of DDR).

6. Profile of demobilization participants

DDR candidates include combatants and dependants (see IDDRS 2.30 on Participants, Beneficiaries and Partners). The definition of a combatant should include individuals who were part of the armed force or group in a support capacity, as well as those involved in active combat. This means that cooks, porters, messengers, administrators, ‘war wives’ and sex slaves also qualify for combatant status. There are also civilian dependants, who may not have played a role in the armed force or group, but may have relied upon a combatant member of his/her family for support. Each category of people associated with armed forces and groups has its own needs and concerns, and should be catered for accordingly at the demobilization site. Most importantly, information on each DDR participant needs to be collected in order to define his/her reintegration needs and to provide information for the design of reinsertion and reintegration programmes (also see IDDRS 5.10–5.70).

6.1. Children

Girls and boys associated with an armed group or force in any role shall be identified as early on as possible in the process, handled in accordance with the Cape Town Principles, and taken to an interim care centre (ICC) for further attention. The ICC shall be separate from the demobilization site, and should be run by an organization specializing in the care of children associated with armed groups and forces. Child mothers and young mothers, whatever role they played in the armed group or force, will also require special assistance in caring for young children (also see IDDRS 5.10 on Women, Gender and DDR, IDDRS 5.20 on Youth and DDR and IDDRS 5.30 on Children and DDR).

Family tracing to help reunite children with their families may also take place at the demobilization site. Possible partners for such operations include the United Nations Children’s Fund and its working partners, and the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). It is advisable that a memorandum of understanding (MoU), clearly defining the responsibilities of each implementing partner in this regard, be drawn up.

Children, especially, should be processed in the community, and should not be put in institutions. In addition to family tracing, reinsertion packages for children should focus on their education.

7. Demobilization methods

Although encampment is no longer considered standard practice, DDR planners may or may not choose to carry out disarmament and demobilization through encampment, depending on the context. The decision to establish demobilization sites, and whether to carry out disarmament as well as demobilization at the same place, shall be carefully considered by the DDR planning team. Answers to the following questions can help shape decisions:

How much time has passed since fighting ended?

Are the combatants already in the communities where they will reintegrate?

Does the security context indicate that encampment is necessary?

Will encampment play an important confidence-building role in the peace process?

What is the size of the armed forces and groups participating in the process?

Will there be enough resources for encampment, i.e., to build semi-permanent demobilization sites?

What are the potential risks of encamping any one of the groups? (See IDDRS 5.10 on Women, Gender and DDR, IDDRS 5.20 on Youth and DDR and IDDRS 5.30 on Children and DDR).

Does the context allow the use of other alternatives to encampment?

7.1. Semi-permanent demobilization sites

DDR planners should carefully consider both the advantages and disadvantages of establishing any form of encampment for (disarmament and) demobilization, depending on the country context. The following issues can assist in deciding on the best approach:

Where encampment is judged to be necessary, DDR planners should take all possible steps to minimize the disadvantages that are normally associated with encampment. Encampment should be kept as short as possible (one week to a month). It should not start before demobilization and reintegration are ready to be put into operation.

7.2. Mobile demobilization sites

Mobile demobilization may be the best alternative to constructing semi-permanent demobilization sites. Mobile demobilization may be used particularly if the target group is small and already cantoned in one location (e.g., barracks). This allows demobilization teams to carry out their activities in these locations without the need to build permanent structures. It is a system that works best with disciplined, recognizable units that are willing to demobilize. It may also be the best approach to take if the target group is already based in the community where its members will reintegrate, as it reduces the logistic requirements for transporting combatants from their community to a demobilization centre and back again.

Furthermore, mobile demobilization centres are also useful in situations where the target group is scattered and not all its members are willing to demobilize. Establishing mobile demobilization centres near these groups can make it easier for those willing to demobilize to take part in the process. Such a programme does, however, require the collaboration of local authorities, and must be combined with a public information campaign to inform the groups about the nature of the DDR programme, the location of the camp and the dates at which it will be operational so that they know what is on offer and how to join the DDR programme.

Mobile demobilization site may not offer that full range of services that semi-permanent sites do. If regional reintegration centres are established, DDR participants may be referred to them once back in their communities, rather than receiving induction and reintegration orientation in the demobilization phase.

Below are the advantages and disadvantages of this method of demobilization:

Where mobile demobilization sites are used, DDR planners shall also take all possible measures to minimize the disadvantages of this approach. Mobile demobilization sites shall not become operational before reintegration assistance becomes available.

8. Activities during demobilization

8.1. Reception

Combatants can enter the demobilization site in two ways. Either they assemble at predetermined pick-up points or assembly areas, from which they are transported to the demobilization site (this may require UN forces to secure transport routes between the assembly areas and the demobilization site), or they may be directed on foot from a disarmament site to the demobilization site, if the two are separate. All routes to the demobilization centre must be thoroughly monitored and guarded by UN military forces to provide security or to prevent entry of additional people, with or without weapons.

In each case, a list should be kept of the people who are being sent from one site to another. This allows better control of the flow of people from one site to another. On arrival, individuals should be checked against the list and searched again for concealed weapons or munitions.

8.2. Screening and registration

Screening and registration of DDR candidates is the single most important activity at the demobilization stage of the DDR process. The aim of this activity is to:

establish the eligibility of the DDR candidate to enter the process, and to register those who meet the criteria;

gather background information on the candidate, in order to design reintegration to suit his/her needs;

weed out those trying to cheat the system by passing through demobilization twice in the hope of receiving more benefits, and other cheaters;

identify DDR candidates with special needs;

gather military information on the armed group/force.

General information on the background of the DDR participants is needed in order to match the individual with their reintegration needs. The following list provides an idea of some of the information which may be required:

nationality;

education level;

literacy;

name, number, sex and age of family members and dependants;

community of origin;

place of reintegration;

marital status;

former occupation;

role in armed force/group;

family members already present in reintegration location;

special needs (disabilities, etc.).

An example of a screening form is given in Annex F.

In order to provide DDR planners with a realistic view of the remaining caseload, a separate screening to gather information on military activities could also take place. This screening should be carried out with the strictest discretion, and should be done by specialists in each area. Examples of the type of information that may be requested are included below.

8.3. Registration and documentation

Once combatants have been screened and found to be eligible for participation in the DDR programme, they should be registered and issued with identity documents. When mobile DDR is carried out, copies of the registration and personal documentation should be stored in a secure location and be included in the DDR database as soon as possible.

8.4. Introduction and briefing

It is important to provide the ex-combatants and associated persons with clear and simple guidance when they arrive at the demobilization site, so as to ensure that they are informed about the process, that they understand the rules and regulations they are expected to observe, and to respond to any concerns — whether justified or unjustified — they may have about the process. This can also help to prevent unrest and stress within the group.

Introductory briefings should cover, among other things, the following:

orientation on accommodation, cooking, eating, washing and ablution facilities;

outline of activities and processes;

camp routines and time schedules;

camp rules and discipline, including off-limits areas and penalties;

policies on gender-based violence and penalties for infringement;

camp security;

details of family routines;

fire precautions and physical safety.

8.5. Counselling and referral

Counselling involves identifying specific needs, providing psychosocial assistance and supporting voluntary testing for HIV/AIDS. It can take place at the demobilization site or may be postponed to the reintegration phase (also see IDDRS 5.60 on HIV/AIDS and DDR and IDDRS 5.70 on Health and DDR).

8.6. Health screening

After being accepted as a DDR participant, the individual should be directed to the medical screening team. At this point, general and specific health needs are assessed. Those who require immediate medical attention of a kind that is not available in the camp should be taken to a hospital (by the suitable partner agency). Others should be treated within the camp facilities.

Basic specialized attention in the areas of reproductive health and sexually transmitted infections, including voluntary testing and counselling for HIV/AIDS, should be provided. The senior medical staff member should be responsible for the supervision of the medical support services (also see IDDRS 5.10 on Women, Gender and DDR, IDDRS 5.60 on HIV/AIDS and DDR and IDDRS 5.70 on Health and DDR).

8.7. Pre-discharge awareness-raising/sensitization

Before being discharged, former combatants should be given advice on the challenges of the transition from military to civilian life. The pre-discharge phase provides an opportunity to offer individuals information to prepare them for civilian life, and aims to reduce the likelihood of remobilization. It allows them to deal with some of their concerns about returning to civilian life, and to gain further information on the steps that they will be taking once they are demobilized.

Suggested topics of information include: human rights; citizenship; child rights; gender issues; the ongoing peace process; reconciliation; provisions for justice; and HIV/AIDS. A practical orientation course should also be established so as to deal with some of the more immediate concerns of the combatants, e.g., finding accommodation, accessing services and DDR benefits, logistics for returning to their homes, etc.

It is vital that the pre-discharge orientation be closely coordinated with provisions for reinsertion and reintegration. Misinformation and the creation of false expectations can undermine the reinsertion and reintegration efforts of DDR; to prevent this, accurate information should be provided by the DDR team and partners (also see IDDRS 4.60 on Public Information and Strategic Communication in Support of DDR).

8.8. Discharge

A discharge document — such as a demobilization declaration — has important symbolic value for ex-combatants, and should be given to them upon completion of the demobilization process. Demobilization declarations provide recognition of a person’s military activities. However, no reference should be made on discharge papers to any particular groups or roles, as this may have negative effects during the reintegration phase. This document should also serve as the former combatant’s proof of demobilization and of eligibility for access to DDR services and programmes.

8.9. Reinsertion: Provision of transitional assistance

Reinsertion is the final step of demobilization and aims to help provide the combatant with support until they are able to enter a formal reintegration programme.

Reinsertion assistance often takes the form of what is know as a transitional assistance package, which may be financial (a ‘transitional safety allowance’ or TSA), food and non-food items or, as is most often the case, a mixture of both. These packages should enable ex-combatants to cater for their immediate needs and those of their dependants. As much as possible, the value of reinsertion packages should be similar to the standard of living of the rest of the population and in line with assistance being provided to other war-affected populations such as refugees or internally displaced persons, so as to avoid the perception that former combatants are receiving special treatment.

The provision of reinsertion benefits, or transitional assistance, should in no way affect the DDR participants’ access to long-term reintegration assistance. Reinsertion, which may be funded by the peacekeeping operation’s assessed budget, may cover the important first few months following discharge, during which it is likely that reintegration projects will not yet be in place.

Given that reinsertion is funded by the assessed budget, it needs to be accounted for in the mission’s budget cycle, which usually begins in June/July. For start-ups, reinsertion should be included in the first submission of the mission’s budget.

Reinsertion benefits should be distributed by one of the implementing partners; however, it is the responsibility of the camp manager to ensure the fair distribution of such items to avoid confrontation.

8.9.1. Cash or no cash?

There has been much debate over the pros and cons of cash hand-outs to ex-combatants and dependants upon completion of the demobilization phase of DDR. On the one hand, some argue that this is the same as a weapons buy-back scheme, and may have the counter-productive effect of encouraging weapons recyclers and/or fuelling the arms market. Past experience has documented misuse of cash hand-outs, which is spent on alcohol or weapons rather than essential items. On the other hand, some believe that a cash hand-out is necessary for the ex-combatant to pay for initial expenses and to provide them with a sense of dignity. There is no strict rule on this; DDR planners are recommended to evaluate the local context and choose a course of action that best suits it (also see IDDRS 5.10 on Women, Gender and DDR).

8.10. Transport

Depending on the context, DDR planners may wish to provide transport to the DDR participants to assist them to return to their communities. Alternatively, as part of the TSA, cash for transport may be given. The logistic implications of providing transport must be taken into account and it will not be possible for all combatants to be transported to their final destination. A mixture of transport to certain appropriate key locations and funding for transport from there on may therefore be required. If transport is provided on UN vehicles, authorizations (from UN administration) and waivers (for passengers) need to be signed. The DDR team should arrange pre-signed authorizations and waivers in order to avoid last-minute blockages and delays. Alternatively, private companies may be subcontracted to provide transport.

9. Constructing a demobilization site

Ideally, the location and accessibility of disarmament and/or demobilization sites should be included in the peace agreement between the former factions. Where this is not done, it is important that the parties to the conflict should be involved in selecting locations and informed about the disarmament and demobilization timetable so as to avoid any misunderstandings that may arise from the movement and regrouping of combatants for disarmament and demobilization.

If security and logistic requirements allow, the disarmament and demobilization process should take place at the same site, which should have a weapons collection point and a demobilization area. The site should consist of separate areas for disposal of weapons, and for the civilian programmes and humanitarian assistance.

Sufficient data on the number of combatants and dependants (e.g., accompanying family members), and on the number of weapons (by means of a weapons survey), should be collected well in advance in order to plan for the number and size of disarmament sites and for proper logistic/technical planning (also see IDDRS 4.10 on Disarmament).

The provision of equipment and logistic support should be coordinated by the DDR logistics officer. The JLOC should liaise closely with the military force to confirm what resources will be provided by them and what will be required from UN stocks and acquisitions. It is essential that the JLOC is kept informed of any issues that will slow the construction and completion of demobilization sites or badly affect the management or maintenance of the site.

9.1. Factors in site selection

The correct selection of disarmament/demobilization sites is extremely important. The following factors must be considered:

Accessibility: The site should be easily accessible. Distance to roads, airfields, rivers and railways should be considered. Accessibility for the protection force to secure the site and for logistic and supply lines is extremely important. The effects of weather changes (e.g., the start of the rainy season) should be considered when assessing accessibility;

Security: Ex-combatants should feel safe in the selected location. Site security should be provided by UN forces. When establishing sites, it is important to consider the general political and military environment, as well as how close they are to potential threats, including international borders. The security of nearby communities should also be taken into account;

General amenities: Disarmament/demobilization sites should be chosen with the following needs taken into account: (potable) water supply; easy set-up of washing and toilet facilities; drainage for rain and waste; natural water course and flooding potential; local power and food supply; environmental hazards, pollution, infestation and dangerous habitats; cooking and eating facilities; lighting, both for security and functionality; and space for recreation facilities, including sports. Special arrangements/contingency plans should be made for children, disabled people, pregnant or lactating women, AIDS sufferers and so on (also see IDDRS 5.1—5.70);

Storage facilities/Armoury: Secure and guarded facilities/armouries for temporary storage of collected weapons should be set up. Transportation should be organized as soon as possible for surrendered weapons and ammunition that are to be moved to permanent storage or destruction sites (also see IDDRS 4.10 on Disarmament);

Communications infrastructure: The site should be located in an area suitable for radio and/or telecommunications infrastructure.

9.1.1. Site alternatives

Using pre-existing camps, and the comprehensive and disciplined demobilization of combatants may allow for greater resources to be directed towards combatants with specific needs and community reintegration programmes, including job creation for the demobilized combatants. Where relevant, the following should be considered:

Refurbishment and temporary use of community property: If available in the area where the demobilization site is to be set up, the use of existing hard-walled property should be considered. The decision should be made by weighing the medium- and long-term benefits to the community of repairing local facilities against the overall security and financial implications. These installations may not need rebuilding, and may be made usable by adding plastic sheeting, concertina wire, etc. Possible sites include disused factories, warehouses, hospitals, schools, colleges, farms, etc. Efforts should be made to verify ownership and avoid legal complications;

Refurbishment and temporary use of state/military property: Where regular armed forces or well-organized/disciplined armed groups are to be demobilized, the use of existing military barracks, with the agreement of national authorities, should be considered. These generally should offer a degree of security and may have the required infrastructure already in place. The same security and administration arrangements should apply to these sites as to others.

9.2. Construction: Contracted or military?

When a decision is made to refurbish or rebuild local hard-walled facilities, it may be preferable to contract the work to an NGO or other agency. This involves several potential risks, which must be considered:

the lengthy process of UN tendering, contract issue and payment may make the programme run over the time and budget allowed for it, with serious security consequences;

the potential for remaining armed groups to attack, threaten or extort ‘protection’ fees from the contractor;

lack of knowledge about the contractor’s reliability;

the possibility that the local community may complain of lack of employment opportunities;

the employment of ex- (or soon to be demobilized) combatants is particularly dangerous, if not physically, then in terms of control of the workforce. This should be avoided.

The quickest and surest method of construction is to use the skills of the military force.

9.3. Mobile demobilization sites

Mobile DDR requires few facilities, since the period during which they will be used is comparatively short. Finding a location that offers protection is necessary, along with the provision of armoured military security forces. Here again the internal perimeter of an old mission or school, or, where the local population supports the DDR process, a football field, may be all that is required.

Ideally, fresh potable water and electricity should be available; otherwise, a water purification system or water supplies and a generator should be brought in. Sanitary facilities must be supplied. Lighting should be installed to ensure security around the perimeter of the camp.

All data collected in mobile facilities should be transferred to the central recording system as soon as possible to ensure its protection.

If circumstances change dramatically during the mobile demobilization process, the staff and ex-combatants should move, under secure escort, to the temporary transit facility in order to complete the minimum required process.

Annex D contains a checklist of items needed for mobile demobilization sites.

10. Managing a demobilization site

10.1. Coordination of services, supplies and assistance

Although DDR is primarily the responsibility of the national government or legitimate authority, these organizations often lack capacity, and it is likely that the task of planning and coordinating services and supplies for demobilization will instead fall to the peacekeeping mission. Working with national bodies and local agencies, as well as international partners, the mission should provide both capacity-building for national bodies, and management and services for the demobilization process.

Acting on the instructions provided by the DDR implementation plan, issued by the DDR unit at mission headquarters, the team leader of the regional DDR field office is responsible for the supervision of DDR operations within his/her designated area. He/She should consult with all relevant agencies about the administration, management and operational support of the demobilization operation. This regional coordination group should include the senior member of the national representative of the NCDDR or designated body. In addition there should be representatives from the implementing partners for camp management, medical support, JLOC, and the military force and military observers. This team should review the plan in light of any new local conditions and/or recommend changes before it is implemented.

The camp manager is responsible for the day-to-day operation of the demobilization site. The entire management and support team should be established well before operations start. Full rehearsals should take place, using members of staff and military — this is a valuable training technique, as well as a way of checking procedures. Using the phased DDR model provides a final training opportunity. In this case, the first planned intake of DDR participants should be relatively small to allow staff to learn lessons and adjust procedures accordingly.

10.2. Camp management contracts

Tenders for management services to the demobilization sites should be invited as early as possible in the preparation stages of demobilization. The agency that is chosen may be an international NGO or a national body, if it has the required capacity.

The advantage of outsourcing management of the camp is that there is no need to get involved in logistic and supply issues. Furthermore, not all parts of the UN system have the capacity or expertise for direct camp management. The disadvantage of outsourcing is its high cost, especially in the case of international NGOs. An alternative would be a local NGO, or even local individuals with the relevant experience, supervised by a UN camp manager.

10.3. Management of disputes within the demobilization site

Establishing group leaders, including women, who will be responsible for reporting any misbehaviour is a good way of involving the DDR participants in the management of the camp, and opens up clear lines of communication for passing on information. Penalties for misbehaviour should have an impact on the group as a whole, in order to develop a sense of collective responsibility. Note that the time spent at the demobilization site should be as short as possible. DDR participants should be kept as busy as possible, and should be responsible for their own cooking, cleaning and washing.

10.4. Civil–military cooperation

While disarmament and demobilization are planned by the DDR unit, including its own military component, efficient coordination of either of these sites can only be achieved through significant levels of civil–military cooperation. The military will play a large part in the selection, construction and security of the sites, as well as being responsible for administrative tasks where military observers will assist the DDR process. The camp manager may or may not be military, but the administrator will almost certainly be civilian. Internal security of the camps should be provided by unarmed or lightly armed civilian/police security staff, and military activity within the camp should be limited to an absolute minimum.

Civilian staff of the implementing partner that is involved will generally administer the day-to-day running of the camp. Working routines, responsibilities and guidelines should be developed jointly between the senior military and civilian managers of the camp.

10.5. Equipment and logistics

Logistical aspects and camp management are essential for timely and effective demobilization. Demobilization sites can be excellent confidence-building measures in the early stages of the broader peace process. If DDR participants are well treated by demobilization camp staff, attitudes towards the process will be positive. However, the camps should not provide such a high standard of living that combatants are reluctant to leave after discharge.

Compatible communications between military and civilians by HF radio should be ensured, since contingent soldiers usually possess their own communications, which are separate from that of UN civilian staff. Compatible communications systems are essential, and failing to organize this will have serious security implications for the camp and its staff, clients and equipment. Adequate communications systems should be a priority for DDR operations detached from main UN locations. A supply chain must be developed in order to ensure the availability of fuel (for generators and vehicles), water and other support material. All staff members should be supplied with personal weapons for self-protection, where this is appropriate.

Stores and equipment tables for a generic (typical or standard) disarmament site are listed in Annex C. The logistics officer should list extra quantities of any stores that are constantly in short supply in the camp in his/her weekly and post-operational reports, in order that the equipment list may be revised.

10.6. Staff security, emergency and evacuation planning

The senior military commander and camp manager are responsible for the development and distribution of the emergency and evacuation contingency plan for their site. Guidelines will be provided by the regional security officer, who is responsible for authorizing the plan. All should liaise closely and, if circumstances permit (without causing local concern), the evacuation plan should be rehearsed.

In most circumstances, the evacuation of staff and equipment from a site will include considerable and close military protection. The commanding officer should ensure that adequate resources remain available at all times, at levels appropriate to the assessed security risk.

10.7. Provision of basic needs (food, water and medical treatment)

Demobilization sites must be supplied with sufficient food and drinking water. A lack of supplies endangers the discipline of the ex-combatants. It is equally important that there are sufficient basic health care and sanitary facilities in the camps, specific to the needs of men, women, children and infants, to ensure that sick ex-combatants are looked after and to prevent epidemics. The camps should provide sufficient shelter and housing for the ex-combatants and the camp staff (also see IDDRS 5.50 on Food Aid Programmes in DDR).

The camp manager is responsible for the coordination of adequate provision of food/water and medical support to the demobilization site and its clients. He/She should liaise closely with the JLOC and military commanders to ensure the safe passage and constant resupply of stocks (also see IDDRS 5.60 on HIV/AIDS and DDR and IDDRS 5.70 on Health and DDR).

In some cases, the provision and management of food and/or medical support may be provided by an implementing partner, NGO or government agency. In such cases, the camp manager should monitor and report on the effectiveness of the arrangements, and assist where possible (also see IDDRS 5.50 on Food Aid Programmes in DDR and IDDRS 5.70 on Health and DDR).

11. Managing a mobile demobilization site

There is no substitute for security in the DDR process. Many circumstances may change in the political or governmental arena, or in the military, that result in rapid changes in the security environment on the ground or at particular locations. Good relations with the local community and respectful interaction with the commanders of the demobilizing groups may provide early warning of possible risks.

In general, the international military force should provide external, area and proximity security to any DDR facility. The force should be well trained, armed and equipped. Operating within the parameters of the agreed mandate, rules of engagement and bilateral agreements (MoUs), the force should be prepared to protect UN staff and equipment and the lives of those within the site.

Security within demobilization sites should be assured by lightly equipped local security services or police. These should be well trained and operate within the guidelines provided for the safe conduct of their duties and the protection of the DDR participant group.

Experience suggests that a mechanism should exist between group leaders and staff that will enable arbitration to take place in cases of complaints and discontent, before such matters get out of control. Early discussion of any problem will usually deal with fears, concerns and anxieties. These are normally the result of a lack of communication or of miscommunication, so it is better to ensure that communications are clear before matters become violent. This preparation reduces the risk to internal camp security. The camp manager is responsible for ensuring that a discussion forum is established at the earliest opportunity, and should use it regularly to ensure that information is provided to those who need it and to deal with problems or issues raised.

Security for mobile operations is entirely the responsibility of the military commander. Provided the security environment is stable enough, and terrain permitting, one or two armoured personnel vehicles, standard service trucks and two four-wheel drive vehicles are necessary to support the operation. Each operation requires approximately one platoon (25–45 people), with some technical support, if necessary.

11.1. Disarmament and weapons storage

Weapons security is also the responsibility of the military. Weapons shall be made safe and registered, and firing mechanisms removed and stored separately. Weapons remain in the custody of the military and are jointly accounted for with DDR staff, to ensure transparency and safe destruction of all weapons. If an objective of the DDR programme is the destruction of all weapons collected, all firearms should be immediately placed beyond local repair, by damaging them sufficiently to make them unusable. In all cases, weapons must be securely stored and taken out of the site within the shortest time possible (also see IDDRS 4.10 on Disarmament and IDDRS 4.11 on SALW Control, Security and Development).

Annex A: Abbreviations

CTO DDR ICRC IDDRS IMTF JLOC MoU NCDDR NGO SSR TSA UN UNHCR UNPOL

centre for transit and orientation disarmament, demobilization and reintegration International Committee of the Red Cross integrated disarmament, demobilization and reintegration standard/standards International Monitoring Task Force Joint Logistics Operation Centre memorandum of understanding national commission on DDR non-governmental organization security sector reform transitional safety allowance United Nations UN High Commission for Refugees UN Police

Annex B: Generic modular demobilization site (D2) plan

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Annex C: Semi-permanent demobilization site stores and equipment table

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Annex D: Checklist of items needed for a mobile demobilization site

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Annex E: Example of an individual’s demobilization process

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Annex F: Example of a screening form

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Annex G: Example of a DDR participant terms and conditions form

As a participant in the [mission name] disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) programme, the terms of your benefits are conditional on the following:

1. Your surrender of all weapons and ammunition;

2. Your full cooperation with [mission name] efforts to recover weapons;

3. Your agreement to renounce military status;

4. Your acceptance of and conformity with all rules and regulations as stated by [mission name] during the full period of your stay in [mission name] disarmament and demobilization camps;

5. Your refraining from all criminal activity and contributing to your nation’s development;

6. Your agreement to return to your country of origin;

7. Your cooperation with and participation in programmes designed to facilitate your return to civilian life.

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