Liberia

Background

Background
The roots of the conflict in Liberia can be traced to a multitude of factors. Among them are the longstanding marginalization and exclusion of large parts of the society from political power and access to resources. Despite some modest economic growth, poverty remained widespread, particularly in rural areas.

In 1980, President William A. Tolbert and thirteen of his aides were executed in a coup carried out by Master Sergeant Samuel Doe, who became Liberia’s first indigenous president. Doe’s reign however was characterized by repression of political opposition and ethnic friction. Amid increasing political tensions, civil war broke out in 1989, when Charles Taylor’s National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL), backed by Cote d’Ivoire, led an uprising against Doe. Taylor was also closely involved with the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) in Sierra Leone, from whom he acquired diamonds in exchange for weapons. By 1990 the NPFL had laid siege on Monrovia, and Samuel Doe was killed.

From the outset of the Liberian civil war, the international community undertook several initiatives to reach a peaceful settlement, including the deployment of an ECOWAS observer force (ECOMOG) in 1990, and the negotiation of a peace agreement and establishment of the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia (UNOMIL) in 1993. At a conference sponsored by ECOWAS and international partners in 1996, a new ceasefire was negotiated, which included a plan to disarm and demobilize troops and to hold free elections. Taylor won the elections held in 1997, which were deemed fair by international observers, although held in a climate of insecurity and fear. The UN established the United Nations Peace-building Support Office in Liberia (UNOL) as a follow-up to UNOMIL.

By the end of the 1990s, amid international criticism of Taylor’s support to the RUF in Sierra Leone, resistance to his government grew within Liberia. A new rebel group, the ‘Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy’ (LURD), supported by Guinea, began to attack Government forces from the North-West of the Country in 2000. Shortly thereafter another faction, Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) began operating from the South-East. In 2003 these rebel groups rapidly advanced towards Monrovia. As the battle for the capital intensified, Taylor was indicted by a UN-backed Special Court for his involvement in the Sierra Leonean civil war. The warring factions had reached a standstill, and new peace negotiations began, which led to the signing of the ‘Comprehensive Peace Agreement’ (CPA) by the Government, LURD, and MODEL forces on 18 August 2003 in Accra, Ghana. Following intense international pressure particularly from the US, Taylor was forced to step down, and to leave the country into exile in Nigeria.

In the CPA the parties requested the UN to deploy a force to Liberia to support the National Transitional Government which was envisaged under the CPA, and to assist in the overall implementation of the Agreement. One of the key sections of the Agreement defines provisions for the implementation of a DDRR Programme in Liberia, including the establishment of a National Commission for Disarmament, Demobilization, Rehabilitation and Reintegration (NCDDRR). Subsequently, Security Council resolution 1509 (2003) established UNMIL under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, and included implementation of a DDRR programme in its mandate.

DDR Strategy and Approach

DDRR mandate and provisions in CPA
By Security Council resolution S/RES/1509 (2003) of 19 September 2003, UNMIL is mandated ‘to develop, as soon as possible, preferably within 30 days of the adoption of this resolution, in cooperation with the JMC, relevant international financial institutions, international development organizations, and donor nations, an action plan for the overall implementation of a disarmament, demobilization, reintegration, and rehabilitation (DDRR) programme for all armed parties, with particular attention to the special needs of child combatants and women; and addressing the inclusion of non-Liberian combatants (foreign fighters); and to carry out voluntary disarmament and to collect and destroy weapons and ammunitions as part of an organized DDR programme’. Aim and objectives of DDRR Programme
The key objective of the Liberian DDRR programme has been to disarm and demobilize combatants of the Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL), Government of Liberia (GOL), Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD), Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) and other paramilitary forces and militias, as well as to prepare for sustainable social and economic reintegration of former combatants in support of long-term peace and security in the country.

Eligibility criteria for DDRR Programme
In order to facilitate the disarmament and demobilization process, the warring factions were requested and agreed to provide UNMIL with full and complete lists of their membership. These lists however were never made available and the DDRR Programme was launched without that information.

Only combatants presenting serviceable weapons were eligible to participate in the DDRR programme and receive benefits. Unserviceable weapons were confiscated and logged. An exception was made regarding child combatants, children or women associated with the fighting forces (CAFF, WAFF) and disabled or wounded combatants. Each such applicant underwent a special screening process, carried out by representatives of child protection, women, or health agencies (such as UNICEF, WHO or UNFPA) in close cooperation with UNMIL Military Observers. This screening confirmed whether a particular person had participated in the fighting or been part of a fighting force, and was thus eligible to join the DDRR programme, despite not being able to present a serviceable weapon.

Qualifying parameters for DD process:

1. Weapons

2. Munitions

Operational Structure and Framework

The National Commission on Disarmament, Demobilization, Rehabilitation and Reintegration (NCDDRR), an institution established by the peace agreement in August 2003, was tasked with supervising the implementation of the DDRR programme. The NCDDRR comprised representatives of relevant authorities of the National Transitional Government of Liberia (NTGL), the previous Government forces, LURD, MODEL, ECOWAS, the United Nations, the African Union and the International Contact Group on Liberia (ICGL). 48 former ’generals’, 16 from each faction, assisted the NCDDRR to facilitate the DDRR process, and to motivate combatants to participate.

In order to facilitate the implementation of the DDRR programme, the NCDDRR, UNMIL, and UNDP formed the Joint Implementation Unit (JIU), a working mechanism for carrying out the planning as well as the day-to-day operations of the programme.

Accountable to the NCDDRR, the JIU is responsible for ensuring:

(i) the planning and implementation of the individual programme components in collaboration with other government departments, NGOs and donors;
(ii) the transparent and accountable administration of the programme (including procurement and disbursements); and
(iii) monitoring and evaluation of the programme.

Area of Activity

Disarmament
A total of 101,495 combatants and persons associated with the fighting forces were disarmed and demobilized during the Phase I, II and III of the Liberian DDRR Programme, including 22,370 women, 8,523 boys and 2,440 girls. 60% of the total caseload were registered as members of the Armed Forces of Liberia (Government forces), 28% were combatants for LURD, and 12% for MODEL.

During the disarmament and demobilization, all in all 28,314 weapons, 33,604 heavy munitions and 6,486,136 rounds of small arms ammunition were surrendered. The weapons include 21,286 assault rifles (such as AK47), 715 machine guns, 665 pistols, 1,841 RPGs, 208 mortars and 3,599 miscellaneous weapons. The heavy munitions include 12,512 mortar bombs, 9,001 RPGs, 10,975 hand grenades, 12 surface-to-air missiles and 1,101 miscellaneous munitions. In addition, 2,332 unserviceable weapons were collected which are not included in the earlier figures.

A ratio of combatant per surrendered weapon/ammo is as follows:

Qualifying Weapons

Qualifying Ammunition

Given the above criteria of weapons/ammo required to qualify, with 101,495 persons who entered the DDRR Progamme, the ratio is 1.09 persons per weapon/ammunition.

However, if one considers that certain groups of DDRR candidates did not require weapons or ammunition to enter the programme, the ratio of weapons to combatants is even higher. The 101,495 ex-combatants in the programme include 33,333 WAFF and CAFF (22,370 women, 8,523 boys and 2,440 girls), and an estimated 1,000 wounded or disabled combatants. Hence only 67% (68,162) of those who were disarmed and demobilized actually had to surrender a weapon or ammunition in order to qualify for the programme. Taking into account these factors leads to an amended ration of 1 person per 1.4 weapons/ammunition.

Demobilization
Eight disarmament and demobilization cantonment sites were established throughout the country, namely in Buchanan, Ganta, Gbarnga, Harper, Monrovia (VOA), Tubmanburg, Voinjama and Zwedru. In order to avert an overflow of the cantonment sites, and to prevent combatants from traveling large distances with their weapons, pick-up points were established, from where combatants were transported to the disarmament and cantonment sites.

Cantonment sites provided separate facilities for men, women, girls and boys. Child-friendly spaces were set up within the sites; however, children were not to spend more than 72 hours at the cantonment sites. After disarmament, children were received in ‘Interim Care Centers’, where they stayed for several weeks before being reunited with their families. The ICCs provided a neutral space for children between participation in hostilities and return to the community. Programmatic interventions related to children were planned and implemented by the Child Protection Working Group, which besides UNICEF comprised about 40 partners (international and national NGOs, UN Agencies, and ministries).

DD timeline

Phase 1: 7 Dec 2003 - 1 Jan 2004
A disarmament and demobilization exercise was launched on 7 December at a cantonment site at Camp Scheiffelin, on the outskirts of Monrovia. More than 12,000 combatants, largely former government soldiers and militias, presented themselves for disarmament, overwhelming the facilities. Problems also arose over misunderstandings concerning the benefits they were to receive. Disturbances caused by disgruntled elements ensued during the next three days at Camp Scheiffelin and in Monrovia. The situation improved after UNMIL provided the ex-combatants with an initial stipend after they had disarmed. The disarmament, demobilization, reintegration and repatriation process was suspended on 17 December. At the time of suspension 12,664 combatants had been disarmed, registered and given receipts as identification for their participation in the demobilization, rehabilitation and reintegration process, and 8,686 assorted weapons had been collected.

Phase 2: 15 April 2004 - 8 Sept 2004
UNMIL successfully re-launched the disarmament, demobilization, rehabilitation and reintegration programme on 15 April at a cantonment site in Gbarnga for LURD combatants. Subsequently, further cantonment camps were opened, on 20 April in Buchanan (for MODEL), on 25 April in Tubmanburg (for LURD) and on 30 April at a site named “Voice of America”, near Monrovia (for former government forces). Disarmament also commenced for ex-Government of Liberia militias at Kakata on 6 May and in the Buchanan cantonment site initially used for MODEL combatants on 7 May.

Phase 3: 7 July 2004 - 31 Oct 2004
The third phase of the programme got under way, with disarmament being carried out in several remote border areas of the country. New cantonment sites were opened in Zwedru on 9 July (for MODEL) and Ganta on 14 August (for the former Government of Liberia forces). In the meantime, disarmament and demobilization operations at the cantonment sites at Gbarnga (for LURD) and Buchanan (for MODEL) were suspended on 5 July and 26 July respectively, upon the completion of combatant caseloads in those areas. Other sites were opened during September.

The disarmament and demobilization exercise officially ended on 31 October, as unanimously agreed upon by the National Commission for Disarmament, Demobilization, Rehabilitation and Reintegration. On 2 November, 48 senior commanders from the three armed factions handed in their weapons and demobilized in a symbolic ceremony. Subsequently, on 3 November, the three armed factions signed a joint declaration attesting to the completion of disarmament and demobilization and acknowledging the cessation of their military existence with the disbandment of their forces and command structures.

On 2 November, the National Commission for Disarmament, Demobilization, Rehabilitation and Reintegration agreed that UNMIL would continue to conduct mobile disarmament operations in locations that were difficult to access, such as Barclayville in Grand Kru county, and Foya, Kolahun and Vahun in Lofa county.

Rehabilitation and Reintegration
For ex-combatants, having acquired civilian status through disarmament and demobilization, reintegration and rehabilitation can be defined as the process by which they re-establish their livelihoods, and gain acceptance as productive members of the receiving communities. This includes eliminating the psychological and material dependence of ex-combatants on previous command structures, typical of the time of conflict.

In Liberia, the first rehabilitation and reintegration programmes for those who had gone through the DD process were launched in June 2004. The main options available to participants are formal education, including computer training, and vocational skills training, including on agriculture. During the DD phase, ex-combatants were asked to identify their preference in terms of reintegration and rehabilitation projects.

Formal education is available to beneficiaries at schools across the country, and lasts for a period of three years. Beneficiaries are supported in terms of school uniforms, school fees, and subsistence allowance during the first two years. By November 2006, 22,000 participants had enrolled in formal education courses, with an additional 8,000 registered for courses starting before the end of the year.

Vocational training is offered in a variety of trades, such as carpentry, masonry, tailoring, or auto mechanics. Agricultural skills training is also available in several counties. Vocational skills training projects are usually implemented by local partner institutions, which undergo a process of assessment and approval by the JIU. As of November 2006,

About two thirds of the total caseload of beneficiaries have been allocated to programmes and projects sponsored through the DDRR Trust Fund, which is administered by UNDP. The remaining beneficiaries are covered by programmes that are sponsored and implemented by a variety of partners, among them UNICEF catering to CAFFs, and bilateral partners such as USAID and the EC.

By the end of October 2006, 32,876 ex-combatants (25,597 male and 7,279 female) have already completed the reintegration programme. Another 26,956 are currently enrolled either in the formal education, vocational skills training or apprenticeship schemes (21,238 male and 5,717 female). By the end of November 2006 a total of 60,000 beneficiaries will have completed or be participating in the programme.

The JIU has recently launched a third cycle of RR projects under the DDRR Trust Fund. Nine new RR projects are already approved, which will accommodate nearly 4,000 beneficiaries. An additional 7,000 beneficiaries have signed up for participation in the formal education programme. This brings the outstanding caseload of beneficiaries to be covered by the Trust Fund to about 5,000.

In addition, there are still about 22,000 beneficiaries who are waiting to be placed in reintegration programmes sponsored and implemented by ‘parallel programme partners’, which include bilateral donors and agencies.

Of the demobilized combatants, 44% have chosen Montserrado (Monrovia with its immediate surroundings) as their preferred resettlement location, while 12% opted for Bong County and 10% for Nimba County.

In support of rehabilitation and reintegration, six NCDDRR Regional Referral and Counseling Offices have been established, namely in Buchanan, Gbarnga, Harper, Monrovia, Voinjama and Zwedru. The offices currently focus on registration, validation, monitoring, and tracking for the vocational skill training and formal education programme, as well as on psycho-social counseling and reconciliation for the demobilized beneficiaries and the host communities.

Community Arms Collection and Development
Since the end of the disarmament and demobilization programme in 2005, UNMIL continued to collect and destroy residual weapons and ammunition that were voluntarily surrendered or discovered through search operations.

A coordination group comprising representatives from UNMIL, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), UNDP, the Liberian National Police and the Liberian National Commission for Small Arms and Landmine Action (an international non-governmental organization) has been established to streamline efforts to eliminate small arms and light weapons from Liberia. The coordination group has prepared a common strategy, which includes modalities for the collection and disposal of unexploded ordnance and explosive remnants of war, and mine risk education. The group’s work is complemented by the UNDP Community Arms Collection for Development programme Which is currently being implemented in Lofa, River Gee, Maryland, Nimba, Grand Gedeh and Bong Counties (see the section on Current Challenges and Latest Updates below for further information on these programmes).

Gender and DDRR
Specific outreach efforts were necessary to encourage women to join the DD process. Women were sometimes unaware of the programme, or assumed participation was open only to men. Ensuring the participation of girls proved to be particularly challenging. Girls were often reluctant to identify themselves as fighters, or as being associated with the fighting forces out of fear of stigmatization, which played a much greater role for girls and women than for men and boys. UNMIL developed messages and organized awareness campaigns to encourage women and girls to participate in the DDRR process, and to sensitize receiving communities.

Cantonment sites offered separate facilities for men and women, and for girls and boys. Gender-sensitive planning for services and provisions made at these sites was found to be paramount in order to adequately address the specific needs of women and girls. This included the gender-sensitive recruitment of Service Providers at the cantonment sites, and specific health care provisions for example for mothers of infants or nursing mothers.

So far, 51% of all eligible women have accessed the RR programme, and 58% of all eligible girls. Yet increased efforts have to be undertaken to ensure that all female beneficiaries are aware of the opportunities available to them, and do have the necessary support to access them.

Foreign ex-combatants
During the disarmament and demobilization, 612 ex-combatants identified themselves as foreign nationals (1 from Ghana, 308 from Guinea, 50 from Ivory Coast, 4 from Mali, 7 from Nigeria, 242 from Sierra Leone). As of October 2006, 325 of the 612 have accessed the Reintegration and Rehabilitation programme which is open to all those who have participated in the disarmament and demobilization process. They participated either in formal education courses or in vocational skills training. In addition, 55 children have been reunified with their families in their countries of origin by UNICEF and the ICRC.

Currently foreign ex-combatants are being tracked and solutions are under development for their sustainable reintegration and/or repatriation. This necessitates a regional dialogue and consultation process, which has also been initiated.

435 Liberian combatants, who had crossed the border into Sierra Leone during the height of the Liberian conflict, were brought back in April 2005 though a joint initiative by the Government of Liberia, the Government of Sierra Leone, and UNMIL. The group included members of the Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL), as well as combatants of various militias.

Ex-combatants and Natural Resources
Lacking employment and livelihood opportunities, ex-combatants in Liberia have been involved in the illicit exploitation of natural resources. Most prominently, two of Liberia’s major rubber plantations have been illegally occupied by ex-combatants after the end of hostilities in 2003. In 2006 UNMIL and the Government of Liberia have strengthened their efforts to reach a peaceful resolution to the occupancy of rubber plantations by ex-combatants. Within the framework of a Joint Government-UN Task Force, UNMIL assisted the Government to re-establish state authority over Guthrie, one of the two plantations that have been occupied by ex-combatants. The security situation in Guthrie has improved dramatically through these interventions, and Liberia National Police as well as a Magistrate Court are now serving communities living inside the plantation. More than 200 registered ex-combatants who resided on the plantation have registered for participation in the reintegration and rehabilitation programme, and most of them have re-located to their counties of origin. Others have decided to remain in the plantation and seek employment with the new management team, which the Government has established as an interim measure, until a credible investor has been found.

Resource Mobilisation

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Current Challenges and Updates

The Nation-wide Survey of Ex-combatants
In August/September 2006, UNMIL RRR section conducted a survey on ex-combatant reintegration, which complemented information and analysis available from earlier studies including ‘Key Findings from the Nation Wide Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia: Reintegration and Reconciliation February-March 2006’ conducted by UNDP in February-March of 2006. This update focused on comparing the situation of ex-combatants that have participated in the RR programme with those that only disarmed and demobilized.

Overall status: About 8% of ex-combatants currently enrolled in reintegration training programmes experience an improvement in their socio-economic situation compared to other categories of ex-combatants. However, there was only a marginal difference between the socio-economic situation of ex-combatants that had completed training and those that had only disarmed and demobilized.

Acceptance (self-reported): The proportion of ex-combatants that reported that they did not have any problems gaining acceptance from their neighbors remained consistent at 93%.

Acceptance (perceived): Overall, the proportion of ex-combatants who believed that the community viewed them with acceptance has risen from 66% to 73%, which is encouraging. Programme completers continue to perceive acceptance from the community at a higher rate than non-participants (64% vs. 55%) and the proportion of programme completers that believes the community looks upon them with fear has decreased from 20% to 4%.

Employment: Nearly 28% of the sample reported that they are unemployed, which is similar to previous findings. Unemployment varies widely however, from region to region. Programme completers report the highest unemployment rate, and those currently enrolled in programmes report the lowest.

This and other surveys show that providing skills training or education is just one step on the path towards sustainable reintegration. Programmes need to strengthen their impact on communities as a whole, and help to create employment and income generating opportunities.

Weapons Collection
Since the formal closure of the Disarmament and Demobilization process, UNMIL has continued to collect and destroy weapons, ammunitions, UXOs or ERWs that are submitted or found by Liberians. As of November 2006, UNMIL has collected and destroyed a cumulative total of 632 weapons, 74,403 rounds of ammunition, 1,002 unexploded ordnances (UXOs), and 11,622 assorted spares and miscellaneous parts. Under the UNDP Community Arms Collection for Development programme (CACD) 230 rifles and guns, 19,935 rounds of ammunition, 457 magazines, bayonets and spares, and 289 UXOs have been collected since its launch in January 2006.

Cross-border Movements
The unstable situation in Côte d’Ivoire continues to present a serious threat to the stability that now prevails in Liberia. In particular, there are concerns about the possible movement of armed groups from Côte d’Ivoire into Liberia; the possible recruitment of former Liberian combatants, including children, for operations in Côte d’Ivoire; and the possible influx of Ivorians who might seek refuge in Liberia in the event of a resumption of violence in Côte d’Ivoire. To counter these potential threats, UNMIL has continued to maintain a strong security presence in border areas.